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Critical Thinking > Module 1 -1 > Flashcards

Module 1 -1 Flashcards

1
Q

3 ways of getting someone to “believe” or do something?

A
  1. Causes - alcohol causes you to be like…
  2. Motives …alcohol is booze, u booze you lose
  3. Reasons…harmful effects of this because of alcohol.
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2
Q

Why are REASONS different from Causes and Motives?

A
  1. Reasons set you free…
  2. Truth and Falsity
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3
Q

Reasoning produces

A

arguments for a subject/topic.

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4
Q

Recognising arguments…

A

Distinguishing arguments from non-arguments is
NOT THE SAME

as distinguishing GOOD argument from BAD ones

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5
Q

ARGUMENTS & REASONING COME IN MANY FORMS… 4

A

1 * Might be in PROSE, but sometimes in POETRY

2 * OFTEN it is NOT even SPOKEN OR WRITTEN:
BUT If we want to examine an argument we have to
represent it in some way.

  1. Certain ACTIONS can be EXPRESSIVE of REASONING
  2. We have to USE SENTENCES even though they USED in the ORIGINAL CASE
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6
Q

What is a Declarative sentence?

A
  1. The main tools of the trade in reasoning BECAUSE
    their

FUNCTION is to ASSERT, to make CLAIMS,
to STATE FACTS,
to DECLARE things to be TRUE or FALSE

EXAMPLES…

Sentence 1 (‘Grannie has eaten the budgie.’)

Sentence 5 (‘A psychoanalyst should be able to uncover her repressed memories of her childhood sexual fantasies; they’re responsible for her present dysfunctional
behaviour.’)

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7
Q

WHAT is Grammatical form and function?

A
  1. WE ARE INTERESTED IN GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION
  2. Grammatical form and function DO NOT ALWAYS CORRESPOND

3 * FORM is a guide to function but it is not always reliable
- We want to know how a sentence is actually functioning in its context.

  1. in spoken English, DECLARATIVES = often function as QUESTIONS
  2. INTERROGATIVES = can function as DECLARATIVES
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8
Q

An argument almost entirely comprised of rhetorical questions…

A

An argument almost entirely comprised of rhetorical questions…

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9
Q

The first problem of recognition –

A

= FORM AND FUNCTION

  1. Statements
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10
Q

What are Compound statements?

A
  1. CONJUNCTION (and)
    — where we combine two (or more) statements to
    make third which says that EACH OF THE SIMPLE ARE TRUE.
  2. DISJUNCTION (or)
    —where we combine two (or more) statements
    into a compound statement which says that
    EITHER ONE OR OTHER OF THE SIMPLE ONES IS TRUE.
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11
Q

Examples of Conjunctions

A

‘and’, semi-colon, ‘while’, ‘but’, ‘although’ etc

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12
Q

What makes a conjunction true?

A
  1. If we assert a that a conjunction is true then
    we are saying that EACH OF ITS CONJUNCTS ARE ALSO TRUE.
  2. So, the WHOLE COMPOUND STATEMENT will be TRUE ONLY IF BOTH OF ITS CONJUNCTS ARE TURE.
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13
Q

Roles of statements in arguments: PREMISE AND CONCLUSION

A
  1. An arguments is a discourse in which some statements are offered
    as justifying, proving or making probable some other statement.
  2. The statement being justified is the CONCLUSION
  3. The statements acting to justify the conclusion are the PREMISES
  4. The terms PREMISE and CONCLUSION
    refer to ROLES which statements play within arguments
  5. The same statement may act, at different times, as conclusion and premise.
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14
Q

Example of Premise and Conclusion

A
  1. The statement ‘The cat died’

is a PREMISE in:
“The cat died”, but the dog didn’t, so it must be
the cat food which is poisoned

but it is a CONCLUSION in:
The cat food was poisoned, and there is a putrid smell coming from the cat basket, so I infer that “the cat died.”

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15
Q

PREMISES AND CONCLUSIONS EXAMPLE 2

A

“It is now three weeks since the python was fed.”
PREMISE

“So, the python will eat anything it can find.”
(SUB-CONCLUSION of FIRST sub-argument AND
PREMISE of SECOND sub-argument)

“So, I’m afraid that poor Featherstonehaugh has
cashed in his chips.”

(MAIN CONCLUSION, or CONCLUSION to second SUBARGUMENT)

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16
Q

How do we tell something is an argument?

A

To determine whether a discourse contains reasoning, ask yourself

“DOES THE DISCOURSE CONTAIN STATEMENTS?
—WHICH ARE PUT FORWARD AS “JUSTIFYING”, “PROVING”, “DISPROVING”, “MAKING PROBABLE OR IMPROBABLE”, OTHER STATEMENTS WITHIN THE SAME DISCOURSE.

17
Q

Understanding inference:

A

So, argument has to do with the relationships of
TRUTH and FALSITY among statements,

relationships expressed by the term INFERENCE.

When the truth or falsity of one statement is INFERRED from the truth or falsity of another,

we have A PIECE OF REASONING, OR AN ARGUMENT.

18
Q

What are Inference indicators?

A

There are words and phrases whose characteristic FUNCTION IS TO INDICATE WHEN INFERENCE IS TAKING PLACE. = INFERENCE INDICATORS

(Govier – indicator words!)

19
Q

There are two kinds of inference indicators:

A
  1. Premise indicators (because, since, as, for the reason that..etc)
  2. Conclusion indicators
    (so, therefore, thus etc)
20
Q

Inference indicators can be

A

misleading

21
Q

Inference indicators can be
misleading…

THUS

A

The word ‘thus’ OFTEN serves to INTRODUCE the
CONCLUSION OF AN ARGUMENT.
=== and for this reason it is a CONCLUSION INDICATOR ,

BUT
sometimes it MERELY introduces an ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE.

22
Q

THUS…eaxmple

A

We cannot take the least action in this world without killing numerous minute creatures.

Killing per se must THUS be a morally neutral matter.
CONCLUSION INDICATOR)

Mrs Jones was a conscientious mother;
THUS, when she took Nipper for a walk, she always made sure that his horns were concealed from view.
(ILLUSTRATIVE)

23
Q

Inference indicators can be
misleading…

AS

A

As’ often serves to INTRODUCE a REASON for a CONCLUSION,
that is, it is often a PREMISE indicator

BUT

It can sometimes mean something like ‘WHILE’.

And sometimes it is HARD TO TELL THE DIFFERENCE.

24
Q

AS… EXAMPLE

A

As…. the present state of the universe cannot be
measured exactly [PREMISE], future events cannot be
predicted exactly [CONCLUSION].
(PREMISE INDICATOR)

As….. he went past the graveyard, he heard a low moan.
(while)

As… his muscles began to ache under the strain, his
attention was distracted.
(???)

25
Q

What about argument without inference indicators?

A

So, how can we tell if an inferential relationship between statements is intended if there is no explicit indicator?

CONTEXT …Use your common sense!

Look at the context, for example:
He won’t come tonight. The Bachelor is on TV.
You know how much he loves that show.

TO/FORArgument, No Argument.

LOOK AT THE CONTENT.

26
Q

What are Nouns and Noun phrases?

A

It is natural to think that a premise should correspond
to one sentence and a conclusion to another,

BUT ……..Often premise and conclusion occur in the same sentence,

and one sentence may even contain several
premises and possibly the conclusion too.

This is OK when we are dealing with separable statements,

but can be difficult when assertions are concealed by
NOUN AND NOUN PHRASES.

27
Q

Noun and Noun Phrases examples…

A

Since the king is rather annoyed at losing his toes, it would be wise to avoid disturbing him until his mistress has had time to console him.
(this is OK)

Because of the king’s annoyance, we should not
disturb him.

(noun phrase ‘the king’s annoyance’ conceals
the assertion ‘the king is annoyed’, but ‘because ‘ is a clear inference indicator)

BOTH EXAMPLES CONTAIN INFERENCE!

28
Q

Noun and Noun phrases …Misleading example.

A

” The king’s annoyance makes it unwise to disturb
him.”

This doesn’t look like an argument, ‘makes it’
doesn’t look like an inference indicator, BUT this
sentence is equivalent to:

“The king is annoyed. Therefore, it is unwise to
disturb him.”

BE WARY OF NOUN PHRASES IN PLACE OF SENTENCES.

THEY’RE COMMON IN ENGLISH AND CAN BE MISLEADING.

29
Q

What is the IMPLIED CONCLUSION?

A

The bigger the burger, the better the burger. The
burgers are bigger at Burger King.

Implied conclusion?

30
Q

Example of IMPLIED CONCLUSION?

A

Scientists now believe that in nature, matter
cannot be destroyed without being converted
to energy. Not even the tiniest particle can
disappear without a trace. Nature does not
know extinction – only transformation. Would
God have less regard for his masterpiece of
creation, the human soul? (Werner von Braun)

‘Implied conclusion? The human soul is immortal’

31
Q

WHAT ARE THE BARRIERS TO RECOGNISING ARGUMENT? = 5***

A
  1. Distinction between the form of a sentence and its function
  2. Inference indicators can be doing other things
  3. Some discourses which contain argument have no inference indicators
  4. Nouns and noun phrases
  5. Missing/implied conclusions

Critical Thinking (18 decks)

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