Module 8A Flashcards
A very Common form of argument is
argument by ANALOGY
Define analogy:
a comparison between one thing and another, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification.
“an analogy between the workings of nature and those of human societies”
a correspondence or partial similarity.
“the syndrome is called deep dysgraphia because of its analogy to deep dyslexia”
a thing which is comparable to something else in significant respects.
“works of art were seen as an analogy for works of nature”
There is a WIDESPREAD TENDENCY to view ALL ARGUMENTS BY ANALOGY AS IRRELEVANT.
WHAT ARE THE 2 FACTORS FEEDING THIS TENDENCY?
Why is it important to resist these tendencies?
- Experience withBAD OR STRAINED ANALOGIES.
- Noticing that MANY USES of analogy ARE NOT INTENDED AS ARGUMENTS.
** We should resist dismissing all arguments by analogy.
Many examples of good analogical arguments exist
*Acknowledgment of Variation:
Not all analogical arguments are good, but acknowledging those that are is important.
Examples of analogical arguments:
- Returning to the same Indian restaurant due to previous good curries.
- Avoiding another establishment because the waiter insulted you.
- Scientists predicting the ‘greenhouse effect’ on Earth based, in part, on analogy.
Analogies serve a variety of purposes, the most prominent being: 4
(1) to DESCRIBE DRAMATICALLY or more FORCEFULLY something else;
(2) to ILLUSTRATE what you MEAN by a PARTICULAR CLAIM OR THESIS;
(3) to EXPLAIN HOW SOMETHING WORKS
i.e. a mechanism;
(4) to ARGUE FOR A CONCLUSION
Some examples will illustrate these different uses:
A. How far that little candle throws his beams! So shines a good deed in a naughty world.
[The Merchant of Venice]
B. Wittgenstein used to compare thinking with swimming: just as in swimming our bodies
have a natural tendency to float on the surface so that it requires great physical exertion to plunge to the bottom, so in thinking it requires great mental exertion to force our
minds away from the superficial, down into the depth of a philosophical problem.
[George Pitcher]
C. The methods and functions of discovery and proof in [scientific] research are as different as are those of a detective and of a judge in a court of law. While playing the part of the detective the investigator follows clues but having captured his alleged fact,
he turns judge and examines the case by means of logically arranged evidence. Both functions are equally essential but they are different. [W.I.B. Beveridge]
D. The atomic model which emerged from the work of Rutherford and others resembled a planetary system, for the force which binds planets to the sun obeys the same general form of law as the force which binds electrons to the nucleus. Both gravity and
electricity decrease in strength with the square of distance. From this it follows that the particle-electron, attracted by the positive electricity of the nucleus, should move around it in the same way that a planet moves around the sun. [Barbara Lovett Cline]
Author draws attention to a likeness between two separate items in various examples:
Purposes of Analogies: 4
- Dramatic or poetic effect.
- Illustration or explanation.
- Argumentative purposes.
- Ambiguity in Example D regarding its purpose.
Ambiguous purpose of analogies:
Ambiguous purpose – unclear if it’s illustrating Rutherford’s theory or arguing for it
Use of Analogies in EXPLANATION:
- Often used to explain how something works.
- Analogies illustrate mechanisms without necessarily arguing for a conclusion.
- Example from R. Dawkins:
In “The Selfish Gene,” Dawkins uses an analogy of a rowing coach selecting the best crew to illustrate how genes get selected.
- No argument to explain why something happened in this context.
UNDERSTANDING Variation in Analogical Use:
Analogies can be used to EXPLAIN WHY SOMETHING HAPPENED IN SOME CASES, FORMING PARTS OF ARGUMENTS.
The TYPES OF Role of Analogy in Argument. 3
- REFUTATION BY LOGICAL ANALOGY
- CONSISTENCY ANALOGIES
- INDUCTIVE ANALOGIES
ROLE OF ANALOGIES IN ARGUMENT:
REFUTATION B Y LOGICAL ANALOGY
Involves using analogies to refute arguments by demonstrating a logical inconsistency.
ROLE OF ANALOGIES IN ARGUMENT:
CONSISTENCY ANALOGIES
Analogies used to highlight and maintain consistency within an argument or reasoning.
ROLE OF ANALOGIES IN ARGUMENT:
INDUCTIVE ANALOGIES
Analogies employed in the inductive reasoning process, often used to support conclusions or generalizations.
What is the importance of analogies in argument?
analogies play a significant role in STRENGTHENING AND SUPPORTING VARIOUS ASPECTS OF ARGUMENTS.
What is the PURPOSE of REFUTATION BY LOGICAL ANALOGY:
COMPARE 2 ARGUMENTS to DEMONSTRATE WEAKNESS OF THE (1) PRIMARY ARGUMENT BY CONSTRUCTING AN ANALOGOUS ARGUMENT THAT IS OBVIOUSLY BAD.
What is the logic behind a Refutation Analogy?
Analogous weak argument implies the weakness of the primary argument.
Emphasis on Consistency: Consistency analogy
Highlights the importance of consistency in rational argumentation.
Principle of Consistency Analogy:
If Argument A is WEAK, and Argument B is RELEVANTLY SIMILAR TO A, THEN IN CONSISTENCY, Argument B is CONSIDERED BAD.
Exception Consideration: CONSISTENCY
If arguing against the badness of Argument B, one needs to show relevant differences between A and B.
Refutation by Logical Analogy:
Special case of appealing to consistency.
What is Consistency Principle:
Consistency involves treating similar cases similarly.
Applicable to attitudes, decisions, judgments, actions, characters, situations, etc.
