Module 8 - Family and Peer Relationships Flashcards
One of the most important contexts in which children develop is
The relational context
Dr. Diana Baumrind’s original three distinct parenting styles:
authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive.
Maccoby and Martin (1983) expanded her work into the 4 parenting styles, adding in rejecting-neglecting
Authoritative parenting
High in both responsiveness and high in behavioural control.
-Parents typically set limits and enforce rules, but also explain their reasoning behind it. They both love and limit their children.
-Parents respect children and listen receptively to their requests and questions.
-Authoritative parents commonly balance behavioural control and responsiveness by allowing children to make choices within the parents’ standards. For example, do you want carrots or broccoli for the supper vegetable tonight?
Autoritarian Parenting
Authoritarian parents are high in behavioural control, but low in responsiveness.
Parents have absolute control over their children and value unquestioned obedience.
Parents try to control children’s behaviour and attitudes.
“Bad” behaviour is punished, while affection and praise are rarely given.
This type of parenting is very militarian, where parental word is law. For example, rather than explain their decision-making, parents might respond with “because I said so!”
Rejecting-Neglecting Parenting
Rejecting/neglecting parents are low in behavioural control and low in responsiveness.
-Parents are disengaged – they have very little involvement in the child’s life.
-Parents are usually more concerned about their own problems.
For example, parents rarely know what the child is up to or where they are, and give them little guidance.
Permissive Parenting
Permissive parents are high in responsiveness, but low in behavioural control.
Parents have lax discipline – there might be rules but they are rarely enforced and parents rarely give punishments or consequences.
There are few demands placed on children, and children are generally considered to be “the boss”. The relationship is very indulgent.
Parents generally have a “kids will be kids” attitude, and may view their role as more of a friend than a parent.
What are the effects of Permissive parenting on child development?
Children:
Impulsive, low self-control
Higher externalizing problems (e.g., aggression, rule breaking)
Adolescents:
More school misconduct
Higher rates of drug and alcohol use
What are the effects of Authoritative parenting on child development?
Children:
Higher adaptive skills
More competent, popular with peers
Less antisocial behaviour
Adolescents:
High social and academic competence
Self-reliant
Adaptive coping skills
What are the effects of Authoritarian parenting on child development?
Children:
Lower in social and academic competence
Less happy, lower self-confidence
Boys tend to be more impacted than girls
Adolescents:
More ineffective coping strategies
Higher rates of delinquency, depression, aggression, and alcohol use
the total fertility rate in Canada is ?
~1.6
This rate refers to the number of children that a woman is likely to have over the course of reproductive years
What are the effects of Rejecting-Neglecting parenting on child development?
Children:
-Disturbed attachment in relationships
-Difficulties with peer relationships
Adolescents:
-More antisocial behaviour, internalizing problems, substance abuse, risky sexual behaviour
-Lower academic achievement
What does replacement level of fertility mean?
each couple had approximately two children and could essentially replace themselves in terms of population growth. This means that Canada is increasingly reliant on immigration for population growth.
Risks associated with advanced maternal age include:
Genetic abnormalities
Risk of miscarriage
Birth complications:
What maternal age is “best” for child development?
Canadian research finds that women <19 years-old and those who are >30 years-old are at the greatest risk for childbirth complications, particularly those who are >44 years-old
What is considered advanced maternal age?
age 35 years or older, their pregnancy is riskier because their bodies are less physiologically capable of the rigours of pregnancy
Example of Age related pregnancy risk of birth complications
Birth complications like breech position, emergency Cesarean, and preterm also increase significantly with age (Jolly et al., 2000).
Example of Age related pregnancy risk of miscarriage
Risks of spontaneous miscarriage also increase with age. For example, miscarriage rates are estimated to be 9% among 22 year-olds, 18% among 30 year-olds, and 40% among 40 year-olds (Nybo Andersen et al., 2000).
Example of Age related pregnancy Genetic Abnormalities
The likelihood of having a baby with Down syndrome is :
1/1340 for a 25 year-old mother,
1/939 for a 30 year-old mother, and
1/35 for a 45 year-old mother
How is the frequency of family dinners correlated with mental health?
That it is negatively correlated with indicators of poor mental health, and also positive correlated with indicators of positive mental health. The researchers found that this pattern was consistent across age, gender, and socioeconomic status.
Family dinners benefit well-being because they serve to foster open family communication and connectedness
Which variable has been found to be an important factor in the adjustment of children of lesbian and gay parents?
The closeness of the parent‒child relationship
What can be considered limitations of the Family Dinners study ?
- It is correlational, so the reverse interpretation could be true (e.g., youth with more positive mental health are more likely to communicate with their families)
-Self-report data were obtained from children only
-Third-variable problem - there may be another variable that accounts for both family communication and child well-being (e.g., parenting style)
Lone parent families
Lone parent families have approximately doubled since 1961
4 out of 5 lone parent families are female
Divorce
Divorce is stressful for most children in the short-term.
In the long-term, longitudinal research indicates that children of divorce are less well-adjusted across social, emotional, and behavioural domains.
Divorce moderators
impact the strength of the relationship between divorce and negative outcomes for children, at both the child and parental levels.
For example, when parents avoid making children feel caught in the middle, maintain high-quality relationships with both parents (especially the non-custodial parent), and use positive, cooperative, and respectful parenting strategies, the negative impacts of divorce are reduced.
Divorce confounds
Marital conflict
This leads to the question of whether it is better to stay in a conflictual, married relationship, or a non-conflictual divorced relationship.
While this is challenging to study, the research suggests that the parental relationships with the least amount of conflict are best for children’s development.
LGBTQ+
Approx 1% of all Canadian couples are same-sex
1/3 of these couples are in married relationships.
Approx. 12% of Canadian same-sex couples have children, compared to approximately half of mixed-sex couples
Research consistently shows that children raised by LGBTQ+ parents have similar adjustment levels as children raised by opposite-sex parents
Total fertility rate in Canada
is ~1.6. This rate refers to the number of children that a woman is likely to have over the course of reproductive years, based on age-specific fertility rates.
replacement level of fertility
meaning each couple had approximately two children and could essentially replace themselves in terms of population growth
1971 was the last year that Canada reached this level
relationship quality
Research consistently indicates that it is relationship quality (not quantity or structure) that is the biggest predictor of children’s outcomes.
High quality family relationships have open communication, supportiveness, and trust.
Piaget function of relationships
Piaget posited that peers are crucial for learning because peers are typically close in age, they are more equal in status than a parent-child relationship and therefore more likely to have disagreements.
Piaget believed that disagreements within friendships fostered learning and cognitive development.
Vgotsky function of relationships
Vygotsky emphasized learning through collaboration within friendships.
Ex: friends can help each other learn through the zone of proximal development. Through collaboration, friends can accomplish a task larger than either could do on their own
Sullivan function of relationships
In peer relationships, Sullivan argued that we have a chance to practice intimacy that is used in relationships later in life.
Parten (1932) 6 stages of play
First three stages of play (unoccupied, solitary, and onlooker) do not involve others. Initially, children explore and play on their own.
Second three stages of play involve social play, which starts to develop around 12 months of age
Second three stages of play (Social play)
Parallel play (begins ~12m)
Associative play (begins ~15-18m)
Cooperative play (begins ~24m+)
Parallel play
Parallel play (begins ~12m): children tend to play next to each other, but not together.
For example, children may drive toy cars next to each other.
Associative play
Associative play (begins ~15-18m): children first start to interact and explore toys together.
For example, they may show each other blocks but do not engage in very much collaboration.
Cooperative play
Cooperative play (begins ~24m+): children begin to develop goals or rules for their play.
Play becomes much more complex and includes cooperation, conflict, taking turns, and negotiation. For example, children may play a board game with rules, or cooperate in pretend-playing a tea party.
What are the benefits of play?
children learn…
academic skills like math, science, reading, language, and literacy.
social skills like effective communication, conflict resolution, problem solving and cooperation.
about themselves – they get to know their personalities including their likes and dislikes, strengths and interests.
How do adults play a role in early peer interactions?
Parents might be in the role of playmate, social director, coach, or mediator
Developmental changes we see in peer relationships - Early childhood
(3-7 years old)
Primary Concerns: Play, entertainment
Main processes and purposes of communication: coordinating play, conflict resolution
Emotional development: Learning to manage emotional arousal
Developmental changes we see in peer relationships - Middle childhood
(8-12 years old)
Primary Concerns: Inclusion, present oneself positively to peers
Main processes and purposes of communication: coordinating activities, gossiping about others
Emotional development: acquiring rules for displaying emotions, managing rejection
Developmental changes we see in peer relationships - Adolescence
(13-17 years old)
Primary Concerns: self exploration, identity development, sexual development
Main processes and purposes of communication: shared values and interests, self disclosures, problem solving
Emotional development: implications of emotions for relationships
3 main factors that contribute to friendship formation
1) homophily
2) social-emotional skills
3) role of adults
homophily
is the tendency to form relationships with similar others.
Homophily consists of both selection and socialization effects. That is, we select friends who are similar to us in some way, and over time, we become more similar to our friends.
social-emotional skills (ESP)
Include things like emotional expression, mutual support, and conflict resolution.
Boys and girls tend to rely on different social-emotional skills in their friendships, and tend to communicate differently with their friends
role of adults
Parents socialize their children, instill values, norms, skills, and cultural practices that help children to develop friendships. Parents do this through:
Direct instruction
Indirectly modelling attitudes and behaviours
Provide and control social opportunities
Role of attachment and internal working model
Teachers and other socializing adults (e.g., coaches) also support the development of children’s peer relationships through:
Seating charts and group learning
Teaching SEL skills
Indirect modelling
Social emotional skills - girls
Social-emotional skills generally play a stronger role
Build intimacy through self-disclosure
More “supportive”
Spend more time together using electronic communication
Social emotional skills - boys
Build intimacy through shared activities and healthy competition
Use more humour in their communication
Spend more time together in-person
Friendships are unique because they typically involve
equal status.
This equality provides many developmental opportunities, including:
Companionship, figuring out likes and dislikes
Social scaffolding, learning from one another
Positive emotional experiences, emotional support
Self-exploration, trying new ideas without authority
Benefits of friendships
Research consistently demonstrates that high-quality friendships have many benefits for children’s development, including social, emotional, and physical health into adulthood
HEALTHY ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS - Youth with high-quality friendships develop better relationship skills in general, and in turn go on to develop healthier romantic relationships.
LESS LONELY - having a high-quality friendship helps buffer the effects of feeling lonely, which is associated with future mental and physical health problems.
Risks of friendships (CCD)
CONFLICT is more common within friendships, simply because you interact more with your friends than with non-friends. Conflict is a particularly common component of friendships for younger children.
CO-RUMINATION occurs when friends talk about their problems over and over together and focus on negative feelings and one way that feelings of depression and anxiety can spread among friends.
DEVIANCY TRAINING is a social learning process by which youth learn and reinforce deviant behaviours within their friendships
Developmental Progression for Antisocial Behaviour
EARLY CHILDHOOD:
-Poor parental discipline and monitoring
-Child conduct problems
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD:
-Rejection by normal peers
-Academic failure
LATE CHILDHOOD/ADOLESCENCE:
-Commitment to deviant peer group
-Delinquency
What model provides a framework for understanding how brains tend to develop during adolescence?
Dual systems model;
-socioemotional system
-cognitive control system
What plays an important role in regulating mood, motivation, and sensation seeking (the “feel good” system)?
The dopaminergic system.
During adolescence undergoes significant reorganization and increased dopaminergic projections from the striatum to the prefrontal cortex. The striatum is associated with reward sensitivity.
The adolescent brain is primed to seek out risks because such risks feel especially rewarding during this phase of development.
What system includes executive functioning skills like self-regulation, inhibition, and planning - capacities which are associated with the prefrontal cortex?
Cognitive control system
the prefrontal context is the last area of the brain to fully mature, as it continues to develop into our 20s.
the adolescent brain is particularly vulnerable to the effects of?
alcohol, drugs, and other environmental stressors.
the plasticity of the adolescent brain highlights this developmental stage as an important area for ?
intervention and prevention efforts.
According to the dual-systems model of adolescent brain development
The socioemotional system develops before the cognitive control system, which results in an increased propensity for risk-taking in the content of peers.
Authoritative parenting is associated with…?
Beneficial outcomes for children; however, it is important to consider the role of culture and environment (Parents differ in how they respond to and interact with their children)
In Canadian families what is more important that structure for a childs well-being?
Relationship quality is more important than structure when it comes to children’s well-being.
Peer relationships play a unique role in children’s development because these relationships are more __________ than parent-child relationships.
equal
Social media and childhood development
In Canada, 99% of youth have regular internet access
families now need to help their children navigate the online world too.
the teenage brain is particularly sensitive to risks and rewards in the context of peers - Social media is specifically designed to be rewarding, and this is especially true for adolescents.
GOOD impacts of social media on children’s friendship development
-Youth who use more digital communication tend to report higher friendship quality, intimacy, and support. In this way, technology might just be another avenue for communication.
-Technology is a way for youth to practice self-disclosure. Because there is more anonymity online, it can be easier to engage in self-disclosure which can create more intimate friendships
-Like other healthy relationships, parents and teachers play an important role by modelling and reinforcing healthy online relationships.
Social media on mental health
Mixed results.
-A new 8-year longitudinal study indicates that screen time has little to no effect on adolescent mental health (Coyne et al., 2020). Specifically, this research found that while the amount of screen time increased with development, this increase was not related to increases in anxiety or depression.
-Are certain platforms better or worse for mental health than others? Like offline relationships, it is likely that what youth are doing online matters more for their well-being than simply the amount of time they are online.
BAD impacts of social media on children’s friendship development
-Online relationships are often extensions of what happens in the real-world. Children who are targeted by offline bullying are also likely to be targeted online.
-Relying on technology means that youth have fewer opportunities to practice in-person social skills. This tends to be most problematic for youth who already have social anxiety or difficulties engaging with others in-person.
Family
a group that involves at least one adult who is related to the child by birth, marriage, adoption, or foster status and who is responsible for providing basic necessities as well as love, support, safety, stability, and opportunities for learning
Family Structure
the number of and relationships among the people living in a household
Family structure has big implications for
Family income
What percent of of children living with single parents live below the federal poverty line?
34%
Teen-tot program
allow teen parents and their children to be seen by the same doctor and also provide an array of other services, including child development education, parenting education, safety education, family planning, and financial planning
What did the teen-tot experiment find?
Found that teen mothers in the program were higher in caretaking skills, higher in self-esteem, and lower in rates of repeat pregnancy.
However, the intervention did not reduce teen mothers’ depressive symptoms or their risk for maltreating their children.
Men who become fathers at age 30 or older…
Tend to be more responsive, affectionate, and cognitively and verbally stimulating with their infants than are younger fathers
parenting style of newly divorced parents
As a result of the stress divorced parents, compared with that of parents in two-parent families, often tends to be characterized by more irritability and coercion and by less warmth, emotional availability, consistency, and supervision of children
Children raised by grandparents are…
more likely to experience a range of emotional and behavioral problems
Children of divorce are more likely to experience
Depression and sadness, have lower self-esteem, and be less socially responsible and competent
Boys especially, are prone to externalizing problem behaviors such as aggression and antisocial behavior, both soon after the divorce and years later
Adolescents whose parents divorce exhibit a greater tendency to drop out of school, engage in delinquent activities and substance abuse, and have children outside of marriage
Complex or blended stepfamilies
Involve both a new stepparent and stepsiblings
simple stepfamily
a new stepparent joins another parent and his or her children
Conflict between stepfathers and stepchildren tends to be…
greater than that between fathers and their biological offspring
Why is it that stepmothers generally have more difficulty with their stepchildren than do stepfathers?
possibly because the biological fathers expect stepmothers to take an active role in parenting, and children frequently resent and reject the stepmothers’ role as disciplinarian
family dynamics
the way in which family members interact through various relationships: mother with each child, father with each child, mother with father, and siblings with one another
socialization
the process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future roles in their particular culture
discipline
the set of strategies and behaviors parents use to teach children how to behave appropriately
internalization
the process by which children learn and accept the reasons for desired behavior
It occurs best when parents apply the right amount of psychological pressure on children
other-oriented induction
Reasoning focused on the effects of a behavior on other people
It is particularly effective at promoting internalization
When is discipline considered the most effective?
if it leads to a permanent change in the child’s behavior because the child has learned and accepted the reasons for desired behavior; this process is called internalization
punishment
a negative stimulus that follows a behavior to reduce the likelihood that the behavior will occur again
ex: yelling, time out, taking away privileges, love withdrawal (found to be ineffective and linked with negative outcomes).
Most punishments fall under discipline techniques that apply too much psychological or even physical pressure on children are not effective at promoting internalization
parenting style
parenting behaviors and attitudes that set the emotional climate in regard to parent–child interactions, such as parental responsiveness and demandingness
two dimensions of parenting style that are particularly important:
(1) the degree of parental warmth and responsiveness
(2) the degree of parenting control and demandingness
Baumind’s typology of parenting styles
authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved
authoritative parenting
high in demandingness and supportiveness.
Authoritative parents set clear standards and limits for their children and are firm about enforcing them; at the same time, they allow their children considerable autonomy within those limits, are attentive and responsive to their children’s concerns and needs, and respect and consider their children’s perspective
authoritarian parenting
high in demandingness and low in responsiveness.
Authoritarian parents are nonresponsive to their children’s needs and tend to enforce their demands through the exercise of parental power and the use of threats and punishment. They are oriented toward obedience and authority and expect their children to comply with their demands without question or explanation
permissive parenting
high in responsiveness but low in demandingness.
Permissive parents are responsive to their children’s needs and do not require their children to regulate themselves or act in appropriate or mature ways
uninvolved parenting
low in both demandingness and responsiveness to their children; in other words, this style describes parents who are generally disengaged
children’s behavior sometimes shapes…
parents’ typical parenting style
Recent research moved away from the idea that parents have a single style and depends on contextual factors to which style they use at any given moment. (ex: child’s misbehavior is dangerous, running late, good mood)
Differences in mother and father interactions with their children
Mothers
-even working mothers, still spend an average of an hour and a half more each day with their children
-more likely to provide physical care and emotional support than are fathers
-more likely to say that they are overprotective and that they praise their children too much (U.S)
Fathers
-spend a greater proportion of their available time playing with their children, both in infancy and childhood
-engage in more physical and rough-and-tumble play
Child’s influence on parenting
-Individual differences of their behavior and expressions of temperament contribute to the parenting they receive
-some children may be more reactive to the quality of parenting they receive than are others
What makes children especially responsive to their rearing environment, whether it be warm and responsive parenting or controlling and demanding parenting
allele of the serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4
coercive cycles
Ex: when parents become frustrated, they may escalate their negative behaviors (e.g., yelling, spanking), which evoke even more negative behavior from children.
bidirectionality of parent–child interactions
the idea that parents and their children are mutually affected by one another’s characteristics and behaviors
child maltreatment
action or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker that results in physical or emotional harm to a child or a risk of serious harm
What is a predictor of low self regulation and risky sexual behaviour?
high levels of sibling aggression and conflict
4 types of maltreatment
1) Neglect
2) Physical Abuse
3) Emotional Abuse
4) Sexual Abuse
polyvictimization
the co-occurrence of multiple forms of maltreatment
Consequences of maltreatment
-immediate outcomes that can include physical pain and injury (from physical or sexual abuse);
hunger, cold, or other physical discomfort (from neglect);
and fear or anxiety (emotioanl abuse)
-unusual attachment pattern to their caregivers
-developing cognitive delays and antisocial behaviors and of engaging in risky behaviors in adolescence and into adulthood
-increases the likelihood that a child will be diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder later in life and will be more severe and less amenable to treatment
-heightened response to anger cues that manifests in increased aggressive behavior, changes in brain functioning and other physiological responses that are typical responses to threats (e.g., heart rate, skin conductance), and increased negative emotion
-higher rates of substance abuse, violent delinquency, and suicide attempts
-negative effects on the immune system in childhood to increased rates of coronary heart disease and other biological risk factors in adulthood
Risks for maltreatment
-parents’ lack of knowledge about their children’s needs and abilities
-strong negative reaction to stress
-family’s low income
-inadequate housing and material resources
-social isolation
-Parental alcohol and other drug dependence
-Parents with a history of being maltreated themselves (twice as likely than those who weren’t)
Preventing maltreatment
- Strengthen the economic situation of families.
- Change social norms to promote positive parenting
- Provide quality early education to children
- Enhance parenting skills
- Intervene to help children and prevent recurrence of maltreatment
peers
people of approximately the same age and status who are unrelated to one another
How do Parents socialize their children’s development?
direct instruction;
modeling of skills, attitudes, and behavior;
managing of children’s experiences and social lives.
What are Parenting styles and practices are affected by?
characteristics of the children, including their attractiveness, behavior, and temperament.
Discipline vs punishment
The use of discipline that emphasizes reasoning has been linked with better compliance and social competence.
Punishments, such as spanking, have been linked with worse behavior in children over time.
play
voluntary activities, particularly those of children, with no specific motivation beyond their inherent enjoyment
Within the context of peer relationships, what are the important contributors to children’s cognitive development?
both disagreement and cooperation
Even something as seemingly simple as establishing the ground rules for an informal game of soccer can hone children’s skills in debate and compromise.
One of the key ways that children interact with their peers
play.
Play is enjoyable, active, and voluntary—if children are rewarded for their behaviors or are indifferent about the activity, it is not play
Mildred Parten
Identified six types of play that increase in complexity of their social interactions;
1) unoccupied play
2) onlooker play
3) solitary play
4) parallel play
5) associative play
6) cooperative play
Non Social play
children choose and engage in activities by themselves. This type of play is observed more among the youngest children (below 2 years of age) who are in the process of learning language as well as social norms for interacting with peers.
Social Play
The most complex forms of play are social and are observed more among the oldest children (4 years old and older), who are able to engage in more advanced play as they master communication and self-regulatory skills.
Unoccupied play (non social play)
child watches things in the environment, but only briefly. Nothing holds their interest for very long.
Onlooker play (non social play)
child watches other children’s play. The child may ask questions about the play but will not try to join in.
Solitary play (non social play)
child is engrossed in his or her own activity and does not attend to the behavior of others. All the preschool children were observed to engage in this type of play at some point, but some children engaged in it more than others.
What domain may be most affected by play?
Social-emotional development may be the domain most affected by play; children learn how to cooperate, take turns, and try out social roles.
-children will experience happiness
-learn and practice empathy and concern for others.
-cognitive development - practice problem solving, to strengthen their memory, and to express their creativity.
-encourage language development
-develop gross motor skills as well as their coordination, balance, and strength. (physical play)
-promotes emotion regulation and increases positive emotions
What is CCPT?
child-centered play therapy
-encourages children to express their thoughts and emotions through free play
-effective in reducing children’s externalizing symptoms (such as aggression) and internalizing symptoms (such as anxiety), as well as improving their social skills
reciprocities
friends have mutual regard for one another, exhibit give-and-take in their behavior (such as cooperation and negotiation), and benefit in comparable ways from their social exchanges
What factors influence a child’s friendship decisions?
-children tend to be friends with peers who are friendly and who act prosocially toward others
-similarity of interests and behavior
-similar to themselves in the cognitive maturity of their play and in the levels of their cooperativeness, antisocial behavior, acceptance by peers, and shyness
-similar levels of negative emotions such as distress and depression
-similar in their tendencies to attribute hostile intentions to others
-proximity
-gender
cross-racial/ethnic friendships
-Efforts to establish friendships outside one’s own racial/ethnic group are less likely to be reciprocated than are efforts within the group, and when they are reciprocated, they often are not as long lasting
-Youths who maintain cross-racial/ethnic friendships tend to be leaders and relatively inclusive in their social relationships, as well as socially competent and high in self-esteem
Developmental changes in friendships
–12 to 18 months - display a preference for some children over others by touching, smiling at them, and engaging in positive interactions
–24 months - begun to develop skills that allow greater complexity in their social interactions, including imitating peers’ social behaviors, engaging in cooperative problem solving, and trading roles during play
–Age 3 or 4, children can make and maintain friendships with peers and most have at least one friendship
–age 5 years on, children who are friends communicate more often with one another and cooperate and work together more effectively
Role of technology in friendships; key ways in which electronic communication facilitates the creation and maintenance of friendships among children
- Greater anonymity
- Less emphasis on physical appearance
-More control over interactions
-Finding similar peers
24/7 access
Effects of Friendships on Psychological Functioning and Behavior
-Support and validation - buffer against unpleasant experiences
-Development of social and cognitive skills - Interactions with friends provide children with opportunities to get constructive feedback regarding their behavior and ideas.
-Costs of Friendships and Negative Peer Interactions - aggression, alcohol and substance abuse, bullying, victimization
relational aggression
a kind of aggression that involves excluding others from the social group and attempting to do harm to other people’s relationships; it includes spreading rumors about peers, withholding friendship to inflict harm, and ignoring peers when angry or frustrated or trying to get one’s own way
