Module 8 - Family and Peer Relationships

Question 1

One of the most important contexts in which children develop is

Answer 1

The relational context

Question 2

Dr. Diana Baumrind’s original three distinct parenting styles:

Answer 2

authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive.

Maccoby and Martin (1983) expanded her work into the 4 parenting styles, adding in rejecting-neglecting

Question 3

Authoritative parenting

Answer 3

High in both responsiveness and high in behavioural control.

-Parents typically set limits and enforce rules, but also explain their reasoning behind it. They both love and limit their children.

-Parents respect children and listen receptively to their requests and questions.

-Authoritative parents commonly balance behavioural control and responsiveness by allowing children to make choices within the parents’ standards. For example, do you want carrots or broccoli for the supper vegetable tonight?

Question 4

Autoritarian Parenting

Answer 4

Authoritarian parents are high in behavioural control, but low in responsiveness.

Parents have absolute control over their children and value unquestioned obedience.

Parents try to control children’s behaviour and attitudes.

“Bad” behaviour is punished, while affection and praise are rarely given.

This type of parenting is very militarian, where parental word is law. For example, rather than explain their decision-making, parents might respond with “because I said so!”

Question 5

Rejecting-Neglecting Parenting

Answer 5

Rejecting/neglecting parents are low in behavioural control and low in responsiveness.

-Parents are disengaged – they have very little involvement in the child’s life.
-Parents are usually more concerned about their own problems.
For example, parents rarely know what the child is up to or where they are, and give them little guidance.

Question 6

Permissive Parenting

Answer 6

Permissive parents are high in responsiveness, but low in behavioural control.

Parents have lax discipline – there might be rules but they are rarely enforced and parents rarely give punishments or consequences.

There are few demands placed on children, and children are generally considered to be “the boss”. The relationship is very indulgent.

Parents generally have a “kids will be kids” attitude, and may view their role as more of a friend than a parent.

Question 7

What are the effects of Permissive parenting on child development?

Answer 7

Children:
Impulsive, low self-control
Higher externalizing problems (e.g., aggression, rule breaking)

Adolescents:
More school misconduct
Higher rates of drug and alcohol use

Question 7

What are the effects of Authoritative parenting on child development?

Answer 7

Children:
Higher adaptive skills
More competent, popular with peers
Less antisocial behaviour

Adolescents:
High social and academic competence
Self-reliant
Adaptive coping skills

Question 8

What are the effects of Authoritarian parenting on child development?

Answer 8

Children:
Lower in social and academic competence

Less happy, lower self-confidence
Boys tend to be more impacted than girls

Adolescents:

More ineffective coping strategies

Higher rates of delinquency, depression, aggression, and alcohol use

Question 9

the total fertility rate in Canada is ?

Answer 9

~1.6

This rate refers to the number of children that a woman is likely to have over the course of reproductive years

Question 10

What are the effects of Rejecting-Neglecting parenting on child development?

Answer 10

Children:
-Disturbed attachment in relationships
-Difficulties with peer relationships

Adolescents:
-More antisocial behaviour, internalizing problems, substance abuse, risky sexual behaviour

-Lower academic achievement

Question 11

What does replacement level of fertility mean?

Answer 11

each couple had approximately two children and could essentially replace themselves in terms of population growth. This means that Canada is increasingly reliant on immigration for population growth.

Question 12

Risks associated with advanced maternal age include:

Answer 12

Genetic abnormalities
Risk of miscarriage
Birth complications:

Question 13

What maternal age is “best” for child development?

Answer 13

Canadian research finds that women <19 years-old and those who are >30 years-old are at the greatest risk for childbirth complications, particularly those who are >44 years-old

Question 14

What is considered advanced maternal age?

Answer 14

age 35 years or older, their pregnancy is riskier because their bodies are less physiologically capable of the rigours of pregnancy

Question 15

Example of Age related pregnancy risk of birth complications

Answer 15

Birth complications like breech position, emergency Cesarean, and preterm also increase significantly with age (Jolly et al., 2000).

Question 16

Example of Age related pregnancy risk of miscarriage

Answer 16

Risks of spontaneous miscarriage also increase with age. For example, miscarriage rates are estimated to be 9% among 22 year-olds, 18% among 30 year-olds, and 40% among 40 year-olds (Nybo Andersen et al., 2000).

Question 16

Example of Age related pregnancy Genetic Abnormalities

Answer 16

The likelihood of having a baby with Down syndrome is :

1/1340 for a 25 year-old mother,

1/939 for a 30 year-old mother, and

1/35 for a 45 year-old mother

Question 17

How is the frequency of family dinners correlated with mental health?

Answer 17

That it is negatively correlated with indicators of poor mental health, and also positive correlated with indicators of positive mental health. The researchers found that this pattern was consistent across age, gender, and socioeconomic status.

Family dinners benefit well-being because they serve to foster open family communication and connectedness

Question 18

Which variable has been found to be an important factor in the adjustment of children of lesbian and gay parents?

Answer 18

The closeness of the parent‒child relationship

Question 19

What can be considered limitations of the Family Dinners study ?

Answer 19

• It is correlational, so the reverse interpretation could be true (e.g., youth with more positive mental health are more likely to communicate with their families)

-Self-report data were obtained from children only

-Third-variable problem - there may be another variable that accounts for both family communication and child well-being (e.g., parenting style)

Question 19

Lone parent families

Answer 19

Lone parent families have approximately doubled since 1961

4 out of 5 lone parent families are female

Question 20

Divorce

Answer 20

Divorce is stressful for most children in the short-term.

In the long-term, longitudinal research indicates that children of divorce are less well-adjusted across social, emotional, and behavioural domains.

Question 21

Divorce moderators

Answer 21

impact the strength of the relationship between divorce and negative outcomes for children, at both the child and parental levels.

For example, when parents avoid making children feel caught in the middle, maintain high-quality relationships with both parents (especially the non-custodial parent), and use positive, cooperative, and respectful parenting strategies, the negative impacts of divorce are reduced.

Question 22

Divorce confounds

Answer 22

Marital conflict

This leads to the question of whether it is better to stay in a conflictual, married relationship, or a non-conflictual divorced relationship.

While this is challenging to study, the research suggests that the parental relationships with the least amount of conflict are best for children’s development.

Question 23

LGBTQ+

Answer 23

Approx 1% of all Canadian couples are same-sex

1/3 of these couples are in married relationships.

Approx. 12% of Canadian same-sex couples have children, compared to approximately half of mixed-sex couples

Research consistently shows that children raised by LGBTQ+ parents have similar adjustment levels as children raised by opposite-sex parents

Question 24

Total fertility rate in Canada

Answer 24

is ~1.6. This rate refers to the number of children that a woman is likely to have over the course of reproductive years, based on age-specific fertility rates.

Question 25

replacement level of fertility

Answer 25

meaning each couple had approximately two children and could essentially replace themselves in terms of population growth

1971 was the last year that Canada reached this level

Question 26

relationship quality

Answer 26

Research consistently indicates that it is relationship quality (not quantity or structure) that is the biggest predictor of children’s outcomes.

High quality family relationships have open communication, supportiveness, and trust.

Question 27

Piaget function of relationships

Answer 27

Piaget posited that peers are crucial for learning because peers are typically close in age, they are more equal in status than a parent-child relationship and therefore more likely to have disagreements.

Piaget believed that disagreements within friendships fostered learning and cognitive development.

Question 28

Vgotsky function of relationships

Answer 28

Vygotsky emphasized learning through collaboration within friendships.

Ex: friends can help each other learn through the zone of proximal development. Through collaboration, friends can accomplish a task larger than either could do on their own

Question 29

Sullivan function of relationships

Answer 29

In peer relationships, Sullivan argued that we have a chance to practice intimacy that is used in relationships later in life.

Question 30

Parten (1932) 6 stages of play

Answer 30

First three stages of play (unoccupied, solitary, and onlooker) do not involve others. Initially, children explore and play on their own.

Second three stages of play involve social play, which starts to develop around 12 months of age

Question 31

Second three stages of play (Social play)

Answer 31

Parallel play (begins ~12m)

Associative play (begins ~15-18m)

Cooperative play (begins ~24m+)

Question 32

Parallel play

Answer 32

Parallel play (begins ~12m): children tend to play next to each other, but not together.

For example, children may drive toy cars next to each other.

Question 33

Associative play

Answer 33

Associative play (begins ~15-18m): children first start to interact and explore toys together.

For example, they may show each other blocks but do not engage in very much collaboration.

Question 34

Cooperative play

Answer 34

Cooperative play (begins ~24m+): children begin to develop goals or rules for their play.

Play becomes much more complex and includes cooperation, conflict, taking turns, and negotiation. For example, children may play a board game with rules, or cooperate in pretend-playing a tea party.

Question 35

What are the benefits of play?

Answer 35

children learn…

academic skills like math, science, reading, language, and literacy.

social skills like effective communication, conflict resolution, problem solving and cooperation.

about themselves – they get to know their personalities including their likes and dislikes, strengths and interests.

Question 36

How do adults play a role in early peer interactions?

Answer 36

Parents might be in the role of playmate, social director, coach, or mediator

Question 37

Developmental changes we see in peer relationships - Early childhood
(3-7 years old)

Answer 37

Primary Concerns: Play, entertainment

Main processes and purposes of communication: coordinating play, conflict resolution

Emotional development: Learning to manage emotional arousal

Question 38

Developmental changes we see in peer relationships - Middle childhood
(8-12 years old)

Answer 38

Primary Concerns: Inclusion, present oneself positively to peers

Main processes and purposes of communication: coordinating activities, gossiping about others

Emotional development: acquiring rules for displaying emotions, managing rejection

Question 39

Developmental changes we see in peer relationships - Adolescence
(13-17 years old)

Answer 39

Primary Concerns: self exploration, identity development, sexual development

Main processes and purposes of communication: shared values and interests, self disclosures, problem solving

Emotional development: implications of emotions for relationships

Question 40

3 main factors that contribute to friendship formation

Answer 40

1) homophily
2) social-emotional skills
3) role of adults

Question 41

homophily

Answer 41

is the tendency to form relationships with similar others.

Homophily consists of both selection and socialization effects. That is, we select friends who are similar to us in some way, and over time, we become more similar to our friends.

Question 42

social-emotional skills (ESP)

Answer 42

Include things like emotional expression, mutual support, and conflict resolution.

Boys and girls tend to rely on different social-emotional skills in their friendships, and tend to communicate differently with their friends

Question 43

role of adults

Answer 43

Parents socialize their children, instill values, norms, skills, and cultural practices that help children to develop friendships. Parents do this through:

Direct instruction
Indirectly modelling attitudes and behaviours
Provide and control social opportunities
Role of attachment and internal working model

Teachers and other socializing adults (e.g., coaches) also support the development of children’s peer relationships through:

Seating charts and group learning
Teaching SEL skills
Indirect modelling

Question 44

Social emotional skills - girls

Answer 44

Social-emotional skills generally play a stronger role

Build intimacy through self-disclosure

More “supportive”

Spend more time together using electronic communication

Question 45

Social emotional skills - boys

Answer 45

Build intimacy through shared activities and healthy competition

Use more humour in their communication

Spend more time together in-person

Question 46

Friendships are unique because they typically involve

Answer 46

equal status.

This equality provides many developmental opportunities, including:

Companionship, figuring out likes and dislikes

Social scaffolding, learning from one another

Positive emotional experiences, emotional support

Self-exploration, trying new ideas without authority

Question 46

Benefits of friendships

Answer 46

Research consistently demonstrates that high-quality friendships have many benefits for children’s development, including social, emotional, and physical health into adulthood

HEALTHY ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS - Youth with high-quality friendships develop better relationship skills in general, and in turn go on to develop healthier romantic relationships.

LESS LONELY - having a high-quality friendship helps buffer the effects of feeling lonely, which is associated with future mental and physical health problems.

Question 47

Risks of friendships (CCD)

Answer 47

CONFLICT is more common within friendships, simply because you interact more with your friends than with non-friends. Conflict is a particularly common component of friendships for younger children.

CO-RUMINATION occurs when friends talk about their problems over and over together and focus on negative feelings and one way that feelings of depression and anxiety can spread among friends.

DEVIANCY TRAINING is a social learning process by which youth learn and reinforce deviant behaviours within their friendships

Question 48

Developmental Progression for Antisocial Behaviour

Answer 48

EARLY CHILDHOOD:
-Poor parental discipline and monitoring
-Child conduct problems

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD:
-Rejection by normal peers
-Academic failure

LATE CHILDHOOD/ADOLESCENCE:
-Commitment to deviant peer group
-Delinquency

Question 49

What model provides a framework for understanding how brains tend to develop during adolescence?

Answer 49

Dual systems model;
-socioemotional system
-cognitive control system

Question 50

What plays an important role in regulating mood, motivation, and sensation seeking (the “feel good” system)?

Answer 50

The dopaminergic system.

During adolescence undergoes significant reorganization and increased dopaminergic projections from the striatum to the prefrontal cortex. The striatum is associated with reward sensitivity.

The adolescent brain is primed to seek out risks because such risks feel especially rewarding during this phase of development.

Question 51

What system includes executive functioning skills like self-regulation, inhibition, and planning - capacities which are associated with the prefrontal cortex?

Answer 51

Cognitive control system

the prefrontal context is the last area of the brain to fully mature, as it continues to develop into our 20s.

Question 52

the adolescent brain is particularly vulnerable to the effects of?

Answer 52

alcohol, drugs, and other environmental stressors.

Question 53

the plasticity of the adolescent brain highlights this developmental stage as an important area for ?

Answer 53

intervention and prevention efforts.

Question 54

According to the dual-systems model of adolescent brain development

Answer 54

The socioemotional system develops before the cognitive control system, which results in an increased propensity for risk-taking in the content of peers.

Question 55

Authoritative parenting is associated with…?

Answer 55

Beneficial outcomes for children; however, it is important to consider the role of culture and environment (Parents differ in how they respond to and interact with their children)

Question 56

In Canadian families what is more important that structure for a childs well-being?

Answer 56

Relationship quality is more important than structure when it comes to children’s well-being.

Question 57

Peer relationships play a unique role in children’s development because these relationships are more __________ than parent-child relationships.

Answer 57

equal

Question 58

Social media and childhood development

Answer 58

In Canada, 99% of youth have regular internet access

families now need to help their children navigate the online world too.

the teenage brain is particularly sensitive to risks and rewards in the context of peers - Social media is specifically designed to be rewarding, and this is especially true for adolescents.

Question 59

GOOD impacts of social media on children’s friendship development

Answer 59

-Youth who use more digital communication tend to report higher friendship quality, intimacy, and support. In this way, technology might just be another avenue for communication.

-Technology is a way for youth to practice self-disclosure. Because there is more anonymity online, it can be easier to engage in self-disclosure which can create more intimate friendships

-Like other healthy relationships, parents and teachers play an important role by modelling and reinforcing healthy online relationships.

Question 60

Social media on mental health

Answer 60

Mixed results.

-A new 8-year longitudinal study indicates that screen time has little to no effect on adolescent mental health (Coyne et al., 2020). Specifically, this research found that while the amount of screen time increased with development, this increase was not related to increases in anxiety or depression.

-Are certain platforms better or worse for mental health than others? Like offline relationships, it is likely that what youth are doing online matters more for their well-being than simply the amount of time they are online.

Question 60

BAD impacts of social media on children’s friendship development

Answer 60

-Online relationships are often extensions of what happens in the real-world. Children who are targeted by offline bullying are also likely to be targeted online.

-Relying on technology means that youth have fewer opportunities to practice in-person social skills. This tends to be most problematic for youth who already have social anxiety or difficulties engaging with others in-person.

Question 61

Family

Answer 61

a group that involves at least one adult who is related to the child by birth, marriage, adoption, or foster status and who is responsible for providing basic necessities as well as love, support, safety, stability, and opportunities for learning

Question 62

Family Structure

Answer 62

the number of and relationships among the people living in a household

Question 63

Family structure has big implications for

Answer 63

Family income

Question 64

What percent of of children living with single parents live below the federal poverty line?

Answer 64

34%

Question 65

Teen-tot program

Answer 65

allow teen parents and their children to be seen by the same doctor and also provide an array of other services, including child development education, parenting education, safety education, family planning, and financial planning

Question 66

What did the teen-tot experiment find?

Answer 66

Found that teen mothers in the program were higher in caretaking skills, higher in self-esteem, and lower in rates of repeat pregnancy.

However, the intervention did not reduce teen mothers’ depressive symptoms or their risk for maltreating their children.

Question 67

Men who become fathers at age 30 or older…

Answer 67

Tend to be more responsive, affectionate, and cognitively and verbally stimulating with their infants than are younger fathers

Question 68

parenting style of newly divorced parents

Answer 68

As a result of the stress divorced parents, compared with that of parents in two-parent families, often tends to be characterized by more irritability and coercion and by less warmth, emotional availability, consistency, and supervision of children

Question 69

Children raised by grandparents are…

Answer 69

more likely to experience a range of emotional and behavioral problems

Question 70

Children of divorce are more likely to experience

Answer 70

Depression and sadness, have lower self-esteem, and be less socially responsible and competent

Boys especially, are prone to externalizing problem behaviors such as aggression and antisocial behavior, both soon after the divorce and years later

Adolescents whose parents divorce exhibit a greater tendency to drop out of school, engage in delinquent activities and substance abuse, and have children outside of marriage

Question 71

Complex or blended stepfamilies

Answer 71

Involve both a new stepparent and stepsiblings

Question 71

simple stepfamily

Answer 71

a new stepparent joins another parent and his or her children

Question 72

Conflict between stepfathers and stepchildren tends to be…

Answer 72

greater than that between fathers and their biological offspring

Question 73

Why is it that stepmothers generally have more difficulty with their stepchildren than do stepfathers?

Answer 73

possibly because the biological fathers expect stepmothers to take an active role in parenting, and children frequently resent and reject the stepmothers’ role as disciplinarian

Question 74

family dynamics

Answer 74

the way in which family members interact through various relationships: mother with each child, father with each child, mother with father, and siblings with one another

Question 75

socialization

Answer 75

the process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future roles in their particular culture

Question 76

discipline

Answer 76

the set of strategies and behaviors parents use to teach children how to behave appropriately

Question 77

internalization

Answer 77

the process by which children learn and accept the reasons for desired behavior

It occurs best when parents apply the right amount of psychological pressure on children

Question 78

other-oriented induction

Answer 78

Reasoning focused on the effects of a behavior on other people

It is particularly effective at promoting internalization

Question 78

When is discipline considered the most effective?

Answer 78

if it leads to a permanent change in the child’s behavior because the child has learned and accepted the reasons for desired behavior; this process is called internalization

Question 79

punishment

Answer 79

a negative stimulus that follows a behavior to reduce the likelihood that the behavior will occur again

ex: yelling, time out, taking away privileges, love withdrawal (found to be ineffective and linked with negative outcomes).

Most punishments fall under discipline techniques that apply too much psychological or even physical pressure on children are not effective at promoting internalization

Question 80

parenting style

Answer 80

parenting behaviors and attitudes that set the emotional climate in regard to parent–child interactions, such as parental responsiveness and demandingness

Question 81

two dimensions of parenting style that are particularly important:

Answer 81

(1) the degree of parental warmth and responsiveness
(2) the degree of parenting control and demandingness

Question 82

Baumind’s typology of parenting styles

Answer 82

authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved

Question 83

authoritative parenting

Answer 83

high in demandingness and supportiveness.

Authoritative parents set clear standards and limits for their children and are firm about enforcing them; at the same time, they allow their children considerable autonomy within those limits, are attentive and responsive to their children’s concerns and needs, and respect and consider their children’s perspective

Question 84

authoritarian parenting

Answer 84

high in demandingness and low in responsiveness.

Authoritarian parents are nonresponsive to their children’s needs and tend to enforce their demands through the exercise of parental power and the use of threats and punishment. They are oriented toward obedience and authority and expect their children to comply with their demands without question or explanation

Question 85

permissive parenting

Answer 85

high in responsiveness but low in demandingness.

Permissive parents are responsive to their children’s needs and do not require their children to regulate themselves or act in appropriate or mature ways

Question 86

uninvolved parenting

Answer 86

low in both demandingness and responsiveness to their children; in other words, this style describes parents who are generally disengaged

Question 87

children’s behavior sometimes shapes…

Answer 87

parents’ typical parenting style

Recent research moved away from the idea that parents have a single style and depends on contextual factors to which style they use at any given moment. (ex: child’s misbehavior is dangerous, running late, good mood)

Question 88

Differences in mother and father interactions with their children

Answer 88

Mothers
-even working mothers, still spend an average of an hour and a half more each day with their children
-more likely to provide physical care and emotional support than are fathers
-more likely to say that they are overprotective and that they praise their children too much (U.S)

Fathers
-spend a greater proportion of their available time playing with their children, both in infancy and childhood
-engage in more physical and rough-and-tumble play

Question 89

Child’s influence on parenting

Answer 89

-Individual differences of their behavior and expressions of temperament contribute to the parenting they receive

-some children may be more reactive to the quality of parenting they receive than are others

Question 90

What makes children especially responsive to their rearing environment, whether it be warm and responsive parenting or controlling and demanding parenting

Answer 90

allele of the serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4

Question 91

coercive cycles

Answer 91

Ex: when parents become frustrated, they may escalate their negative behaviors (e.g., yelling, spanking), which evoke even more negative behavior from children.

Question 92

bidirectionality of parent–child interactions

Answer 92

the idea that parents and their children are mutually affected by one another’s characteristics and behaviors

Question 93

child maltreatment

Answer 93

action or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker that results in physical or emotional harm to a child or a risk of serious harm

Question 94

What is a predictor of low self regulation and risky sexual behaviour?

Answer 94

high levels of sibling aggression and conflict

Question 95

4 types of maltreatment

Answer 95

1) Neglect
2) Physical Abuse
3) Emotional Abuse
4) Sexual Abuse

Question 96

polyvictimization

Answer 96

the co-occurrence of multiple forms of maltreatment

Question 97

Consequences of maltreatment

Answer 97

-immediate outcomes that can include physical pain and injury (from physical or sexual abuse);
hunger, cold, or other physical discomfort (from neglect);
and fear or anxiety (emotioanl abuse)

-unusual attachment pattern to their caregivers
-developing cognitive delays and antisocial behaviors and of engaging in risky behaviors in adolescence and into adulthood
-increases the likelihood that a child will be diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder later in life and will be more severe and less amenable to treatment
-heightened response to anger cues that manifests in increased aggressive behavior, changes in brain functioning and other physiological responses that are typical responses to threats (e.g., heart rate, skin conductance), and increased negative emotion
-higher rates of substance abuse, violent delinquency, and suicide attempts
-negative effects on the immune system in childhood to increased rates of coronary heart disease and other biological risk factors in adulthood

Question 98

Risks for maltreatment

Answer 98

-parents’ lack of knowledge about their children’s needs and abilities
-strong negative reaction to stress
-family’s low income
-inadequate housing and material resources
-social isolation
-Parental alcohol and other drug dependence
-Parents with a history of being maltreated themselves (twice as likely than those who weren’t)

Question 99

Preventing maltreatment

Answer 99

1. Strengthen the economic situation of families.
2. Change social norms to promote positive parenting
3. Provide quality early education to children
4. Enhance parenting skills
5. Intervene to help children and prevent recurrence of maltreatment

Question 99

peers

Answer 99

people of approximately the same age and status who are unrelated to one another

Question 100

How do Parents socialize their children’s development?

Answer 100

direct instruction;

modeling of skills, attitudes, and behavior;

managing of children’s experiences and social lives.

Question 100

What are Parenting styles and practices are affected by?

Answer 100

characteristics of the children, including their attractiveness, behavior, and temperament.

Question 101

Discipline vs punishment

Answer 101

The use of discipline that emphasizes reasoning has been linked with better compliance and social competence.

Punishments, such as spanking, have been linked with worse behavior in children over time.

Question 102

play

Answer 102

voluntary activities, particularly those of children, with no specific motivation beyond their inherent enjoyment

Question 103

Within the context of peer relationships, what are the important contributors to children’s cognitive development?

Answer 103

both disagreement and cooperation

Even something as seemingly simple as establishing the ground rules for an informal game of soccer can hone children’s skills in debate and compromise.

Question 104

One of the key ways that children interact with their peers

Answer 104

play.

Play is enjoyable, active, and voluntary—if children are rewarded for their behaviors or are indifferent about the activity, it is not play

Question 105

Mildred Parten

Answer 105

Identified six types of play that increase in complexity of their social interactions;
1) unoccupied play
2) onlooker play
3) solitary play
4) parallel play
5) associative play
6) cooperative play

Question 106

Non Social play

Answer 106

children choose and engage in activities by themselves. This type of play is observed more among the youngest children (below 2 years of age) who are in the process of learning language as well as social norms for interacting with peers.

Question 107

Social Play

Answer 107

The most complex forms of play are social and are observed more among the oldest children (4 years old and older), who are able to engage in more advanced play as they master communication and self-regulatory skills.

Question 108

Unoccupied play (non social play)

Answer 108

child watches things in the environment, but only briefly. Nothing holds their interest for very long.

Question 109

Onlooker play (non social play)

Answer 109

child watches other children’s play. The child may ask questions about the play but will not try to join in.

Question 110

Solitary play (non social play)

Answer 110

child is engrossed in his or her own activity and does not attend to the behavior of others. All the preschool children were observed to engage in this type of play at some point, but some children engaged in it more than others.

Question 111

What domain may be most affected by play?

Answer 111

Social-emotional development may be the domain most affected by play; children learn how to cooperate, take turns, and try out social roles.

-children will experience happiness
-learn and practice empathy and concern for others.

-cognitive development - practice problem solving, to strengthen their memory, and to express their creativity.

-encourage language development

-develop gross motor skills as well as their coordination, balance, and strength. (physical play)

-promotes emotion regulation and increases positive emotions

Question 112

What is CCPT?

Answer 112

child-centered play therapy

-encourages children to express their thoughts and emotions through free play

-effective in reducing children’s externalizing symptoms (such as aggression) and internalizing symptoms (such as anxiety), as well as improving their social skills

Question 113

reciprocities

Answer 113

friends have mutual regard for one another, exhibit give-and-take in their behavior (such as cooperation and negotiation), and benefit in comparable ways from their social exchanges

Question 114

What factors influence a child’s friendship decisions?

Answer 114

-children tend to be friends with peers who are friendly and who act prosocially toward others

-similarity of interests and behavior

-similar to themselves in the cognitive maturity of their play and in the levels of their cooperativeness, antisocial behavior, acceptance by peers, and shyness

-similar levels of negative emotions such as distress and depression

-similar in their tendencies to attribute hostile intentions to others

-proximity

-gender

Question 115

cross-racial/ethnic friendships

Answer 115

-Efforts to establish friendships outside one’s own racial/ethnic group are less likely to be reciprocated than are efforts within the group, and when they are reciprocated, they often are not as long lasting

-Youths who maintain cross-racial/ethnic friendships tend to be leaders and relatively inclusive in their social relationships, as well as socially competent and high in self-esteem

Question 116

Developmental changes in friendships

Answer 116

–12 to 18 months - display a preference for some children over others by touching, smiling at them, and engaging in positive interactions

–24 months - begun to develop skills that allow greater complexity in their social interactions, including imitating peers’ social behaviors, engaging in cooperative problem solving, and trading roles during play

–Age 3 or 4, children can make and maintain friendships with peers and most have at least one friendship

–age 5 years on, children who are friends communicate more often with one another and cooperate and work together more effectively

Question 117

Role of technology in friendships; key ways in which electronic communication facilitates the creation and maintenance of friendships among children

Answer 117

• Greater anonymity
• Less emphasis on physical appearance

-More control over interactions

-Finding similar peers

24/7 access

Question 118

Effects of Friendships on Psychological Functioning and Behavior

Answer 118

-Support and validation - buffer against unpleasant experiences

-Development of social and cognitive skills - Interactions with friends provide children with opportunities to get constructive feedback regarding their behavior and ideas.

-Costs of Friendships and Negative Peer Interactions - aggression, alcohol and substance abuse, bullying, victimization

Question 119

relational aggression

Answer 119

a kind of aggression that involves excluding others from the social group and attempting to do harm to other people’s relationships; it includes spreading rumors about peers, withholding friendship to inflict harm, and ignoring peers when angry or frustrated or trying to get one’s own way