Module 6 - Intelligence and Achievement

Question 1

Alfred Binet

Answer 1

a French psychologist who studied intelligence

believed that the key components of intelligence were high-level abilities, such as problem solving, reasoning, and judgment, and he maintained that intelligence tests should assess such abilities directly

Binet–Simon Intelligence Test—children were asked (among other things) to interpret proverbs, solve puzzles, define words, and sequence cartoon panels so that the jokes made sense.

Question 2

g (general intelligence)

Answer 2

cognitive processes that influence the ability to think and learn on all intellectual tasks

Measures of g, correlate positively with school grades and achievement test performance

g correlates with information processing speed, speed of neural transmission, and brain volume (cognitive and brain mechanisms level)

Measures of g also correlate strongly with people’s general information about the world

Question 3

fluid intelligence

Answer 3

ability to think on the spot to solve novel problems

fluid intelligence peaks around age 20 and slowly declines thereafter
the prefrontal cortex usually is highly active on measures of fluid intelligence

Question 4

crystallized intelligence

Answer 4

factual knowledge about the world

Crystallized intelligence increases steadily from early in life to old age
prefrontal cortex tends to be less active on measures of crystallized intelligence

Question 5

Two types of intelligence based on Cattell

Answer 5

fluid intelligence
crystallized intelligence

While fluid and crystallized intelligence are theoretically distinct, it is important to remember that they are related (think back to “g”). Tests of each type of intelligence are positively correlated with one another.

Question 6

primary mental abilities

Answer 6

seven abilities proposed by Thurstone as crucial to intelligence

word fluency
verbal meaning
reasoning
rote memory
spatial visualization
numbering
perceptual speed

Question 7

intelligence can reasonably be described at three levels of analysis:

Answer 7

as one thing (g- general intelligence)

as a few things (fluid intelligence/crystallized intelligence or 7 primary mental abilities)

or as many things (numerous, distinct processes such as remembering, perceiving, attending, comprehending, encoding, associating, generalizing, planning, reasoning, forming concepts, solving problems, generating and applying strategies, and so on.)

Question 8

What is the proposed theory on how can the 3 competing perspectives on intelligence be reconciled?

Answer 8

three-stratum theory of intelligence

Question 9

three-stratum theory of intelligence

Answer 9

Carroll’s model that places g at the top of the intelligence hierarchy, eight moderately general abilities in the middle, and many specific processes at the bottom

Question 10

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

Answer 10

widely used test designed to measure the intelligence of children 6 years and older

consistent with Carroll’s three-stratum framework, proposing that intelligence includes general ability (g), several moderately general abilities, and a large number of specific processes.

The test yields not only an overall score but also separate scores on five moderately general abilities—verbal comprehension, visual-spatial processing, working memory, fluid reasoning, and processing speed.

Question 11

IQ (intelligence quotient)

Answer 11

a quantitative measure of a child’s intelligence relative to that of other children of the same age

Question 12

normal distribution

Answer 12

pattern of data in which scores fall symmetrically around a mean value, with most scores falling close to the mean and fewer and fewer scores farther from it

Question 13

standard deviation (SD)

Answer 13

measure of the variability of scores in a distribution; in a normal distribution, 68% of scores fall within 1 SD of the mean, and 95% of scores fall within 2 SDs of the mean

On most IQ tests, the standard deviation is about 15 points

Question 14

Other predictors of success (beyond IQ)

Answer 14

Child characteristics that are also important:
motivation to succeed
conscientiousness
intellectual curiosity
persistence in the face of obstacles
creativity, physical and mental health, and social skills

Self discipline – the ability to inhibit actions, follow rules, and avoid impulsive reactions—is more predictive of changes in report card grades between 5th and 9th grades than is IQ score, though IQ score is more predictive of changes in achievement test scores over the same period

“practical intelligence”—skills useful in everyday life but not measured by traditional intelligence tests, such as accurately reading other people’s intentions and motivating others to work effectively as a team—predict occupational success beyond the influence of IQ score

Question 15

self-discipline

Answer 15

ability to inhibit actions, follow rules, and avoid impulsive reactions

Question 16

Bronfenbrenner’s (1993) bioecological model of development

Answer 16

envisions children’s lives as embedded within a series of increasingly encompassing environments.

A useful starting point for thinking about genetic and environmental influences on intelligence

Question 17

Qualities of the child that influence intelligence development

Answer 17

Genetic contributions
Genotype-environment relations

Question 18

Influence of the immediate environment on intelligence development

Answer 18

Family influences- share and non shared family environments

Influences of Schooling -

Question 19

Influence of Society on intelligence development

Answer 19

Effects of poverty

Risk factors and intellectual development

Programs for helping poor children. Ex: Project head start

Question 20

multiple intelligences theory

Answer 20

Gardner’s theory of intellect, based on the view that people possess at least eight types of intelligence

1) linguistic
2) logical- mathematical
3) spatial
4) musical
5) naturalistic
6) bodily-kinesthetic
7) intrapersonal
8) interpersonal

Question 21

theory of successful intelligence

Answer 21

Sternberg’s theory of intellect, based on the view that intelligence is the ability to achieve success in life

given one’s personal standards, within one’s sociocultural context

In his view, success in life reflects people’s ability to build on their strengths, compensate for their weaknesses, and select environments in which they can succeed. When people choose a job, for instance, their understanding of whether it will motivate them can be crucial to their success.

Question 22

Sternberg proposed that success in life depends on three types of abilities:

Answer 22

1) Analytic abilities involve the linguistic, mathematical, and spatial skills measured by traditional intelligence tests.

2) Practical abilities involve reasoning about everyday problems, such as how to resolve conflicts with other people.

3) Creative abilities involve intellectual flexibility and innovation that allow adaptation to novel circumstances.

Question 23

Chall (1979) described five stages of reading development.

Answer 23

1. Stage 0 (birth until the beginning of 1st grade): During this time, many children acquire key prerequisites for reading. These include knowing the letters of the alphabet and gaining phonemic awareness, that is, recognition of the individual sounds within words.
2. Stage 1 (1st and 2nd grades): Children acquire phonological recoding skills, the ability to translate letters into sounds and to blend the sounds into words (informally referred to as “sounding out”).
3. Stage 2 (2nd and 3rd grades): Children gain fluency in reading simple material.
4. Stage 3 (4th through 8th grades): Children become able to acquire reasonably complex, new information from written text. To quote Chall, “In the primary grades, children learn to read; in the higher grades, they read to learn”
5. Stage 4 (8th through 12th grades): Adolescents acquire skill not only in understanding information presented from a single perspective but also in coordinating multiple perspectives. This ability enables them to appreciate the subtleties in sophisticated novels and plays, which almost always include multiple viewpoints.

Question 24

phonemic awareness

Answer 24

ability to identify component sounds within words

Question 25

phonological recoding skills

Answer 25

ability to translate letters into sounds and to blend sounds into words; informally called
sounding out

Question 26

Kindergartners’ mastery of letter names is positively correlated with what?

Answer 26

their later reading achievement through at least 7th grade. However, no causal relationship exists between the two.

Phonemic awareness, on the other hand, is correlated with later reading achievement and also is a cause of it.

Question 27

Words can be identified in two main ways:

Answer 27

phonological recoding and visually based retrieval.

Question 27

visually based retrieval

Answer 27

proceeding directly from the visual form of a word to its meaning

Question 28

strategy–choice process

Answer 28

procedure for selecting among alternative ways to solve a problem

Question 28

When dyslexic children read, what are the two areas of their brains are less active than the corresponding areas in typical children reading the same words

Answer 28

One area is directly involved in discriminating phonemes;

the other area is involved in integrating visual and auditory data (in this case, integrating letters seen on the page with accompanying sounds).

Question 29

At a cognitive level of analysis, dyslexia stems primarily from…

Answer 29

poor phonemic awareness
limited vocabulary for spoken words
and weak decoding skills

Question 30

simple view of reading

Answer 30

perspective that comprehension depends solely on decoding skill and comprehension of oral language

Question 31

situation model

Answer 31

cognitive processes used to represent a situation or sequence of events

Question 32

What Basic processes are crucial to reading comprehension?

Answer 32

encoding (identification of key features of an object or event)

automatization (executing a process with minimal demands on cognitive resources)

Question 33

Development of reading comprehension is also aided by

Answer 33

acquisition of reading strategies

Increasing metacognitive knowledge

increasing content knowledge

Question 33

comprehension monitoring

Answer 33

process of keeping track of one’s understanding of a verbal description or text

Question 34

writing requires focusing simultaneously on numerous goals, both low level and high level

Answer 34

low-level goals include forming letters, spelling words, using correct capitalization and punctuation, and adhering to grammatical rules.

high-level goals include making arguments comprehensible without the intonations and gestures that help us communicate when we speak, organizing arguments into a coherent framework, and providing the background information that readers need to understand the writing.

Question 35

script

Answer 35

typical sequence of actions used to organize and interpret repeated events, such as eating at restaurants, going to doctors’ appointments, and writing reports

Question 36

3 Crucial roles that Metacognitive understanding plays in writing.

Answer 36

1) recognizing that readers may not have the same knowledge as the writer and that the writing therefore needs to provide readers the information they need to grasp what is being said

2) involves understanding the need to plan before writing, rather than just jumping in and starting to write.

3) Understanding the need for revision

Question 37

At what age do most children begin to learn arithmetic?

Answer 37

From about 5 years

Question 38

numerical magnitude representations

Answer 38

mental models of the sizes of numbers, ordered along a less-to-more dimension

Question 39

mathematical equality

Answer 39

concept that the values on each side of the equal sign must be equivalent

Question 40

gesture–speech mismatches

Answer 40

phenomenon in which hand movements and verbal statements convey different ideas

Question 41

One of Binet’s key insights was that…

Answer 41

intelligence includes diverse high-level capabilities that need to be assessed in order to measure intelligence accurately.

Question 42

What was the purpose of Alfred Binet and his colleague Théophile Simon developing the first widely used intelligence test?

Answer 42

To identify children who were unlikely to benefit from standard instruction in the classroom. Modern intelligence tests are descendants of the Binet–Simon test.

Question 43

Intelligence can be viewed as…

Answer 43

a single trait, such as g;

as a few separate abilities, such as Thurstone’s primary mental abilities;

or as a very large number of specific processes, such as those described in information-processing analyses.

Question 44

Intelligence is often measured through use of IQ tests, such as

Answer 44

the Stanford–Binet and the WISC.

These tests examine general information, vocabulary, arithmetic, language comprehension, spatial reasoning, and a variety of other intellectual abilities.

Question 45

A person’s overall score on an intelligence test, the IQ score, is a measure of what?

Answer 45

general intelligence. It reflects the individual’s intellectual ability relative to age peers.

Question 46

Are most children’s IQ scores quite stable over periods of years?

Answer 46

Yes, true , though scores do vary somewhat over time

Question 47

IQ scores correlate positively with what?

Answer 47

long-term educational and occupational success.

Question 48

What other factors can influence success in life?

Answer 48

social understanding, creativity, and motivation also influence success in life.

Question 49

Development of intelligence is influenced by what?

Answer 49

the child’s own qualities
the immediate environment
he broader societal context.

Question 50

Genetic inheritance is one important influence on IQ score. This influence tends to increase with…

Answer 50

age, in part due to some genes not expressing themselves until late childhood or adolescence, and in part due to genes influencing children’s choices of environments.

Question 51

A child’s family environment, as measured by the HOME, is related to the child’s IQ score.

Answer 51

The relation reflects within- family influences, such as parents’ intellectual and emotional support for the particular child, as well as between-family influences, such as differences in parental wealth and education.

Question 52

Schooling positively influences what?

Answer 52

IQ score and school achievement.

Question 53

What broader societal factors also influence children’s IQ scores?

Answer 53

poverty and discrimination against racial and ethnic minorities,

Question 54

To alleviate the harmful effects of poverty, the United States has undertaken what?

Answer 54

Both small-scale preschool intervention programs and the much larger Project Head Start.

Both have initial positive effects on intelligence and school achievement, though the effects fade over time. On the other hand, the programs have enduring positive effects on the likelihood of not being held back in a grade and the likelihood of completing high school and enrolling in college.

Question 55

The Carolina Abecedarian Project

Answer 55

Intensive intervention programs, that begin in the child’s first year and provide optimal childcare circumstances and structured academic curricula have produced increases in intelligence that continue into adolescence and adulthood.

Question 56

What are some Novel approaches to intelligence that attempt to broaden traditional conceptions of intelligence?

Answer 56

Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory
Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence

Question 57

Many children learn letter names and gain phonemic awareness before they start school. What are both of these skills correlated with ?

Answer 57

Both skills correlate with later reading achievement, and phonemic awareness also is causally related to it.

Question 58

Word identification is achieved by two main strategies:

Answer 58

phonological recoding and visually based retrieval.

Question 59

Why does Reading comprehension benefits from automatization of word identification?

Answer 59

because it frees cognitive resources for understanding the text. Use of strategies, metacognitive understanding, and content knowledge also influence reading comprehension, as does the amount that parents read to their children and the amount that children themselves read.

Question 60

Although many children begin to write during the preschool period, writing well remains difficult for many years. Much of the difficulty comes from what?

Answer 60

the fact that writing well requires children to attend simultaneously to low-level processes, such as punctuation and spelling, and to high-level processes, such as anticipating what readers will and will not know.

Question 61

As with reading, what is it that influences development of writing?

Answer 61

automatization of basic processes
use of strategies
metacognitive understanding
content knowledge

Question 62

Most children use several strategies to learn arithmetic, such as…

Answer 62

adding by counting from 1, counting from the larger addend, and retrieving answers from memory.

Children typically choose in adaptive ways, using more time-consuming and effortful strategies only on the more difficult problems where such approaches are needed to generate correct answers.

Question 63

Precise representations of numerical magnitudes facilitate…

Answer 63

learning arithmetic and other mathematical skills.

Question 64

As children encounter more advanced math, what becomes more important?

Answer 64

conceptual understanding becomes increasingly important. Understanding mathematical equality, for example, is essential for grasping advanced arithmetic and algebra problems.

Question 65

Mathematics anxiety can interfere with…

Answer 65

performance and learning because the heightened emotions reduce working- memory resources.

Question 66

four key historical theories on intelligence

Answer 66

1 - Spearman’s G

2- Cattell: crystallized and fluid intelligence

3- Thurstone: 7 primary abilities

4- Carroll: 3 stratum model

Question 67

Spearman’s “g” is positively correlated with:

Answer 67

Performance in school or on achievement tests
Information-processing speed
Speed of neural transmission
Brain volume
General knowledge

Question 68

Fluid Intelligence- Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)

Answer 68

The ability to think on the spot and solve new problems. It is related to:

• adaptation to new tasks
• speed of information processing
• working memory
• attentional control

Fluid intelligence peaks at 20-25 years old

Question 69

Crystallized Intelligence - Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)

Answer 69

Factual knowledge about the world. It reflects long-term memory for prior experience and is related to verbal skills

Crystallized intelligence increases over the lifespan

Question 70

7 Primary mental abilities (Thurstone)

Answer 70

1 - Word Fluency – ability to produce words rapidly

2 - Verbal Comprehension – ability to define and understand words

3- Reasoning – ability to consider and work with rules

4 - Spatial Visualization - ability to visualize relationships between objects

5 - Numbering - ability to deal with numbers

6 - Rote Memory - ability to memorize and recall information

7 - Perceptual Speed - ability to see similarities and differences between objects

Question 71

Is intelligence one thing or many?

Answer 71

Modern theory suggests that it is both.

Overall, intelligence is a broad psychological construct. Depending on your theoretical orientation, intelligence may be viewed as one overarching construct or as several related (but distinct!) constructs.

Question 72

Intelligence is both:

Answer 72

1) someone’s general capacity to think, learn, and solve problems

2) that it consists of several related, but distinct, types of intelligence.

Question 73

Who was the first to posit the idea that intelligence can be measured using observable behaviour?

Answer 73

Alfred Binet

Question 74

Intelligence tests are created to have a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15. What does this mean?

Answer 74

This means that scores from 85-115 are within the average range of intelligence. It’s called average for a reason – in a given population, this is where 68% of people score.

Question 75

How was IQ originally calculated?

Answer 75

IQ= Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age X 100

Mental age: the age-level of the person’s performance
Chronological age: how old the person is actually (in years)

Question 76

The WISC-5 is one of the most common measures of intelligence for children used today. It lines up well with Carroll’s 3-stratum theory as it provides both

Answer 76

1) an overall intelligence quotient
2) separate scores for different types of intelligence.

Question 77

WISC

Answer 77

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

Verbal comprehension
Visual Spatial
Fluid Reasoning
Working Memory
Processing Speed

Question 78

Verbal Comprehension Tests (WISC)

Answer 78

Tests in this area assess abstract verbal reasoning and word knowledge. Scores on the verbal comprehension index are especially sensitive to learning opportunities and cultural experiences.

Question 79

Fluid Reasoning tests (WISC)

Answer 79

Tests in this area assess abstract problem solving and reasoning.

Question 80

Working memory tests (WISC)

Answer 80

Tests in this area assess auditory and visual short-term memory.

Question 81

Processing Speed tests (WISC)

Answer 81

Tests in this area assess attention and motor/mental speed.

Question 82

Pros of Measuring IQ

Answer 82

having an estimate of a child’s intelligence level might inform the type of supports they might need to learn at school. It might provide us with a better understanding of our own strengths and weaknesses.

intelligence testing provides psychologists and medical doctors with the information necessary to make certain diagnoses, like an intellectual disability or a learning disability.

Question 83

Cons of measuring IQ

Answer 83

intelligence testing has a very dark history. Intelligence testing provided a way for the eugenics movement to test individuals they deemed “unfit” to procreate. In the early 1900s, intelligence tests were used to give diagnoses like “moron”, “imbecile”, and “idiot”. Sadly, these labels were used to justify forced sterilizations.

Early versions of modern intelligence tests were not culturally sensitive and norms were created primarily using middle or upper-class white participants. These inaccurate norms lead to ethnic minority students being falsely identified as being intellectually disabled. Even today, intelligence testing continues to be heavily influenced by test taking behaviour.

Question 84

IQ scores can guide…

Answer 84

diagnostic or educational planning, BUT they provide only a snapshot of an individual’s competencies.

Question 85

Grit

Answer 85

Self discipline

power of passion and perseverance (Duckworth)

Question 86

An IQ score of 94.5 indicates

Answer 86

Average IQ

Question 87

________ is more predictive of changes in elementary school grades than ________.

Answer 87

Self-discipline, IQ

Question 88

Intelligence has a strong heritability component

Answer 88

Within a given population, it is estimated that approximately 50% of the variance in intelligence can be accounted for by genetics.

IQ scores are more similar as the degree of relatedness between people increases – indicating a genetic contribution.

BUT the correlation between IQ scores also depends on environment

For example, identical twins who are reared together have a stronger similarity in their IQ scores than identical twins raised apart.

Question 89

the relative contribution of genes on intelligence increases with…

Answer 89

Age.

By adulthood, genetics account for a much greater proportion of the variance in intelligence scores than the shared environment.

For example, this means that adopted children start to have a greater resemblance to their biological parents over time.

This phenomenon is known as the Wilson Effect (heritability for IQ increases over development).

Question 90

‘Wilson effect’ has a major caveat:

Answer 90

Research has mainly focused on middle class populations who are not facing extreme adversity in their development.

In other words, in a moderate environment, genetics play a stronger role than environment over time.

For children who are malnourished, face significant disease or trauma, or other extreme environmental conditions, the environment certainly continues to impact their intelligence.

Question 91

According to Sandra Scarr, the environment can contribute to a child’s intelligence in a number of ways:
(Environmental contributions: Family on Intelligence)

Answer 91

1 - Passive Effects: effects on the child from environments selected by others. For example, a child might live in a home where there are lots of books available.

2 - Evocative Effects: what the child evokes from others. For example, a child who demonstrates an excited, positive reaction to being read to may lead their caregivers to take a stronger interest in reading with them.

3 - Active Effects: what the child actively seeks out in their environment. For example, a child might actively seek out books to read on their own.

Question 92

Environmental Contributions: Society

Answer 92

the larger society in which we develop further contributes to intelligence.

Consider what knowledge was available to someone in the 1920’s versus the 2020’s – there have been countless advancements in technology and our knowledge of the world around us.

Indeed, research indicates that IQ scores have been increasing steadily over time. This phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect.

Question 93

Flynn effect

Answer 93

Great- grandparents learned how to manipulate the world practically but we’ve learned how to classify it intellectually.

In last half century we have went through a profound change in the way we think (Cognitive revolution) since WWII we are requires to sort our world by conceptualizing it through scientific spectacles.

Whites 3/10 pints a year gained
Blacks 4.45/10 a year gained (gaining about 50% faster during that period - IQ gap can be closed environmentally)

Question 94

What two factors are related to intelligence?

Answer 94

both genetic and environmental factors

With development, however, we know that genetic factors account for a greater proportion of the variance within IQ than the shared environment.

Question 95

Over time, the influence of genes on intelligence:

Answer 95

Increases

Question 96

The Flynn Effect tells us that:

Answer 96

Increases in IQ scores must be due to changes in society

Question 97

academic achievement is related to many individual factors like IQ, motivation, grit, and personality. Environmental factors, like parental emphasis on achievement and school resources, also play a role. What are the three basic abilities?

Answer 97

Reading
Writing
Arithmetic

Question 98

There are two main streams of thought on teaching reading:

Answer 98

phonics
whole language

Phonics - Children are taught to dissect unfamiliar words into parts and then join the parts together to form words. By learning these letter-sound relationships, the student is provided with a decoding formula that can be applied whenever they encounter an unfamiliar word. Experts argue that this strategy leads to better pronunciation strategies BUT it makes reading much more effortful and stories can lose their meaning.

Whole Language - Children are taught to focus on the meanings of written words embedded in stories. Students are taught critical thinking and are encouraged to use context clues to help them guess new words. Whole language teachers emphasize the meaning of texts over the sounds of letters. Experts argue that this strategy makes reading more interesting BUT students may be less accurate overall in their ability to read novel words.

Question 99

Writing is more difficult for new learners to master because it involves many different components:

Answer 99

Low-level goals: forming letters, spelling words, correct punctuation

High-level goals: making text understandable, coherent, and providing enough information

Thus, writing takes up a lot of processing capacity in the early years. As you might expect, reading and writing skills are highly correlated

Question 100

Arithmetic. There are notable individual and cultural differences when it comes to achievement in math:

Answer 100

Language -
Chinese, Japanese, and Korean languages tend to express numbers in more straightforward ways than in English. This is one reason why students who speak these languages may be more successful in math than others.

Stereotype Threat -
Math anxiety tends to be more common among girls than boys. This has nothing to do with gender differences in innate ability, but rather is thought to be related to adults’ beliefs about math. For example, a girl may internalize a teacher’s negative stereotype about girls and their ability to be successful with math.

Question 101

majority of students will fall in the “average” range of intellectual ability and academic achievement. But what about people on the extremes?

Answer 101

Giftedness -

Learning Disabilities -

Question 102

Learning Disabilities (LDs)

Answer 102

people with learning disabilities can be high academic achievers, especially when they have the appropriate academic accommodations.

LD’s affect one or more of the ways that a person takes in, stores, or uses information.

are typically diagnosed during childhood and are lifelong neurodevelopmental conditions that impact 5-10% of Canadians.

In order to diagnose a learning disability, there needs to be a significant discrepancy between someone’s cognitive ability level and their academic achievement. For example, an 8-year-old child might have an IQ similar to other 8-year-olds, but is reading at the level of a 5-year-old.

Question 103

Giftedness

Answer 103

Reflects unusually high ability in any domain - this can be a specific area of intelligence, like verbal comprehension, or global IQ.

While giftedness does not have strict “diagnostic” rules per se, it is typically assessed using a standardized IQ test like the WISC-5. Children who score in ≥98th percentile may be considered gifted, which corresponds to an IQ score of ≥ 130. In other words, children who score in this range perform better on the task than 98% of their same-aged peers.

Question 104

academic achievement across reading, writing, and math is related to both

Answer 104

individual factors (like IQ and grit)

contextual factors (like the language you learn in and teacher relationships).

Question 105

Nursery rhymes are beneficial for reading development because:

Answer 105

they emphasize small sound differences between words (e.g., sam, ham)

Question 106

A diagnosis of a learning disability means:

Answer 106

There is a discrepancy between someone’s ability (IQ) and their academic achievement

Question 107

Protzko et al. (2013) conducted a meta-analysis of the environmental factors that may boost the intelligence of young children. What were the findings?

Answer 107

Early education programs raise the IQ of disadvantaged children by 4 points. These programs provide children with cognitively complex environments - books, puzzles, and stimulating verbal interactions.

Engaging in interactive reading with young children raises IQ by 6 points. This effect was larger when interactive reading occurred earlier in development.

Attending preschool raises IQ by 4 points. This effect is larger when preschool includes a specific language component.