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KIN 275 > Module 7 - Energy Metabolism > Flashcards

Module 7 - Energy Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

True or False?: total amount of energy in a system cannot be created or destroyed

A

True, but it can be transformed from one form to another

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2
Q

What is metabolism?

A

chemical processes by which human body converts food into usable energy
- the kcal giving food mix with O2 to make energy; byproducts are CO2 and HO2

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3
Q

What is anabolism?

A

process of building larger molecules from smaller ones

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4
Q

What is catabolism?

A

process of breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones (glucose into H2O and CO2), resulting in release of energy

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5
Q

In normal nutrient catabolism, human cells rely on

A

glucose, fat and protein metabolism

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6
Q

What is a metabolic pathway?

A

a reaction that brings raw material to final product (eg. ATP)

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7
Q

Glucose, fatty acids and amino acids can be broken down to:

A
  • provide energy (ATP)
  • transformed into energy-storage molecules
  • synthesize structural or regulatory molecules
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8
Q

ATP stands for

A

Adenosine Triphosphate

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9
Q

How does ATP contribute to energy?

A

when enzyme breaks bond between phosphates of ATP a lot energy of energy is released

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10
Q

How is Adenosine Diphosphate turned back into ATP?

A

Phosphorylation (requires energy)

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11
Q

Energy from catabolism of food forms __ which is broken down and releases energy to power cellular work

A

ATP

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12
Q

Where does ATP synthesis occur?

A

Mitochondria

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13
Q

Metabolic pathways require ___!

A

O2

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14
Q

Describe path of O2

A

ventilation>lung diffusion>cardiac output>O2 transport within blood>muscle diffusion

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15
Q

When there is adequate oxygen what type of metabolism occurs?

A

aerobic metabolism (oxidation of glucose to produce ATP)

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16
Q

When there is inadequate oxygen what type of metabolism occurs?

A

anaerobic metabolism

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17
Q

What is the first step of oxidation of glucose to produce ATP, which occurs outside the cell (without oxygen)?

A

Glycolysis

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18
Q

What does glycolysis start with and produce at the end?

A

Starts with 6-carbon glucose and produces 2 3-carbon pyruvate

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19
Q

In anaerobic respiration, the 2 3-carbon pyruvates are converted to what outside the mitochondria?

A

2 3-carbon Lactic acid which becomes Lactate when H+ released

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20
Q

After releasing hydrogen, where does Lactate go?

A

enters the blood stream and is taken to liver which converts it to glucose via cori cycle / or cells can pickup and metabolize lactate for energy

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21
Q

In aerobic metabolism, where do the 3C pyruvate molecules go?

A

Enter mitochondria and convert to 2C acetyl CoA and then undergo CAC

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22
Q

What is released when 3C pyruvate is converted to 2C acetyl CoA?

A

CO2 and 2H+ (picked up by NAD+)

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23
Q

What is needed for pyruvate to be converted to acetyl coA?

A

TPP (B vitamin Thiamin), CoA, NAD+

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24
Q

Why are B vitamins important for Acetyl CoA?

A

if diet does not contain adequate water soluble b vitamins cells are unable to make coenzymes needed to make acetyl CoA from Pyruvate

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25
Q

What is a coenzyme?

A

allows molecules to attach to enzymes

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26
Q

What are the most important products of chemical transformation during citric acid cycle (acetyl coA to Co2)?

A

the coenzymes NADH and FADH2 are the most important products

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27
Q

What does Acetyl CoA covert to by the end of citric acid cycle?

A

CO2

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28
Q

What does 2 C acetyl CoA bind to after entering citric acid cycle?

A

4C Oxaloacetate (forming 6C citrate)

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29
Q

What are the 2 energy shuttles in energy metabolism?

A

NAD+ and FAD

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30
Q

What is a component of both energy shuttles NAD+ and FAD?

A

B vitamins

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31
Q

What b vitamin is a component of NAD+?

A

niacin

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32
Q

What is the B vitamin in FAD?

A

riboflavin

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33
Q

What do coenzymes NAD+ and FAD which are energy shuttles transport?

A

e- (electrons are transported as energy) and H+ (for positive charge)

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34
Q

NADH vs NAD+?

A

NAD+ is empty
NADH is actively carrying electrons and hydrogen

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35
Q

FADH2 vs FAD

A

FAD is empty
FADH2 is carrying hydrogen and electrons

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36
Q

Where do coenzymes FADH2 and NADH carry H+ and high energy e-?

A

from CAC (in mitochondria) to ETC (inner membrane of mitochondria)

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37
Q

What occurs in ETC at the inner membrane of mitochondria?

A

e- pass through iron containing cytochromes which bind O (thus aerobic) with the H2 making metabolic water, energy released during electron transfer is used to attach P to ADP turning it to ATP

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38
Q

Do fructose and galactose (other monosaccharides) go through a similar process as glycolysis for glucose?

A
  • Fructolsyis occurs only in cells in the liver, fructosre is broken down into glyceraldehyde which is converted to glycerol (triglyceride backbone)
  • Galactose (converted in a two-step process into glucose, many in liver) catabolized through glycolytic pathway
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39
Q

What is Glycogenolysis?

A

process which breaks down glycogen into glucose

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40
Q

What coenzyme is needed for glycogenolysis (glycogen breakdown into glucose)

A

Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)

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41
Q

What are the primary sites for glycogen storage?

A

muscles and liver

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42
Q

In glycogen breakdown in the muscle, can glucose be released from the muscle?

A

NO, can only be used by muscles

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43
Q

What is gluconeogenesis?

A

synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors: glycerol, lactate, pyruvate and many amino acids

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44
Q

What are the three macronutrients which energy can be obtained from?

A

protein, fats and carbohydrates

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45
Q

What is the most energy dense macronutrient group?

A

triglycerides (fat), they store more energy than glycogen (as seen in atwater value of fat)

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46
Q

What facilitates lipolysis (removal of fatty acids from glycerol backbone) of tryglyceride?

A

HSL (hormone sensitive lipase)

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47
Q

Glycerol backbone of triglyceride can be ___ from blood by liver and converted to _____

A

Glycerol (sugar alcohol) backbone of triglyceride can be REMOVED from blood by liver and converted to PYRUVATE OR GLUCOSE (through gluconeogenesis)

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48
Q

How and where are fatty acids prepared for catabolism?

A

by binding to CoA in cytoplasm (requires 2 ATP)

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49
Q

Where do fatty acids, bonded to CoA in cytoplasm, go from there?

A

pass through outer and inner mitochondrial membranes with help of carnitine

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50
Q

What happens to fatty acids (bonded with CoA) in the mitochondria?

A

beta-oxidation

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51
Q

What happens to fatty acids in beta-oxidation?

A

fatty acids are broken down into numerous 2C acetyl CoA which undergo CAC and ETP (lot of atp is made since so many acetyl CoA are made)

52
Q

How are fatty acids turned into acetyl CoA by beta-oxidation in the mitochondria?

A

enzymes break off 2 carbon segment from the fatty acid (the hydrogens are picked up by FAD and NAD+), repeated until only a 2-carbon segment (acetyl-CoA remains)

53
Q

What is required for acetyl CoA to enter CAC and then ETP

A

O2 and oxaloacetate

54
Q

In fat metabolism, What do the NADH and FADH2 from beta-oxidation and CAC do?

A

shuttle e- to ETC

55
Q

Does the catabolism of fatty acids provide a lot of ATP?

A

YES, a lot of ATP is made from the breakdown of fatty acids (bonded to CoA) which undergo beta-oxidation (removal of 2C acetyl-CoA) in mitochondria and then the many acetyl CoA undergo CAC and ETP.

56
Q

What happen to the acetyl CoAs formed by catabolism of fatty acid in mitochondria if no oxaloacetate (molecule derived from CHO) is present?

A

Body forms ketone bodies (acetoacetate, beta hydroxybutyric, acetone)

57
Q

What can ketones do?

A

Used for energy, excretion in urine, accumulate in blood

58
Q

How are ketones used for energy?

A

Broken down through ketogenesis, can be used as energy (heart, muscle, kidney, can be used for half of brains needs of energy, while other half still needs glucose, which it prefers)

59
Q

What is ketogenesis a response to?

A

to prolonged fasting or a diet low in CHO (no oxaloacetate to bind to acetyl CoA and undergo CAC and ETC so body forms ketone bodies)

60
Q

What is a ketogenic diet?

A

High fat, moderate protein, very low carbohydrate

61
Q

When is a ketogenic diet used?

A

obesity, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes,epilepsy, alzheimer’s and cancer

62
Q

High ketones, increase or decrease hunger?

A

Decrease, also decreases insulin, which increases lipolysis (loss of fat)

63
Q

What are side effects of ketogenic diet?

A

headache, nausea, nutritional deficiency, bone mineral loss, low fiber (low carb)

64
Q

Ketogenesis increases lipolysis, where are ketone bodies formed?

A

liver

65
Q

What 2 out of the 3 ketone bodies can be used as a source of acetyl CoA (and therefore energy)

A

Acetoacetic Acid
Beta hydroxybutyric acid

66
Q

What ketone body can not be used as source of acetyl coA (and therefore energy) and instead is breathed out and gives one “sweet breath”

A

Acetone

67
Q

What is the side effect of increased lipolysis by ketogenesis?

A

release of inflammatory cytokines, can cause inflammatory disorders such as atherosclerosis and cancer

68
Q

Ketones, by accumulating in blood, can…

A

increase acidity (lowers pH) of blood (ketoacidosis)

69
Q

What is Ketoacidosis?

A

increased ketone bodies in blood (acidic), causes body to remove H+ by excretion in urine, causing loss of Na+, K+, Cl-, H20

70
Q

Ketoacidosis can lead to..

A

nausea, vomitting and coma/death due to low pH of blood

71
Q

How can you tell early sign of ketosis?

A

Fruity breath (due to acetone ketone body being breathed off)

72
Q

In a resting muscle, what does the excess of ATP (due to low demand and high supply) do?

A
  • some of the mitochondrial atp is used in conversion of glucose to glycogen
  • mitochondrial atp is also used to convert creatine to creatine phosphate
    Glycogen and CP are both ENERGY RESERVES in the muscle
73
Q

In moderate activity, what happens in the muscle to generate energy (with increased demand for ATP but still enough oxygen for mitochondria)?

A
  • muscle fibre relies on aerobic metabolism of glucose from stored glycogen to make ATP
  • if glycogen reserves low, muscle fiber can breaks down fatty acids
  • all of atp is used for muscle contraction
74
Q

During peak activity, what happens in the muscle to generate energy (with extremely high demand for ATP and oxygen unable to diffuse into fiber fast enough to meet demand of mitochondria)?

A
  • only some ATP comes from aerobic metabolism (1/3 of need)
  • rest of ATP comes from glycolysis outside mitochondria (anaerobic-no oxygen needed)
  • pyruvate from glycolysis is converted to lactic acid and then lactate
75
Q

Under normal conditions how do cells use amino acids?

A

to synthesize essential proteins (enzymes, hormones, structural proteins)

76
Q

When requirement must be filled for cells to catabolize amino acids into other molecules or ATP (glucose, fatty acids)?

A

after synthesis of essential proteins is complete

77
Q

What are the primary energy stores for the body?

A

Glucose and fat

78
Q

If there isn’t enough glucose, ___ of protein will break down protein to produce glucose

A

gluconeogenesis

79
Q

What key processes cannot be performed due to gluconeogenesis of proteins (because of low glucose)

A
  • growth and maintenance of cells
  • transport
  • production of enzymes and hormones
  • immune system regulation
80
Q

Why are carbohydrates so important in protein metabolism?

A

low cho can cause proteins to be used for energy resulting in protein to be unable to perform its own tasks (transport, growth of cells, production of enzymes and hormones)

81
Q

What does Deamination (removal of amino group which is converted to ammonia and excreted in urine) produce?

A
  • Can produce 3C molecules (pyruvate) that can be used to synthesize glucose
  • can produce 2C molecules that form acetyl CoA, enter CAC, etc. for ATP production
82
Q

Both deamination and transamination require…

A

PLP (from vitamin B6)

83
Q

In protein metabolism, What happens to cells when they don’t have enough Vitamin B6?

A

they can not produce enough PLP for transamination and deamination

84
Q

What do you call amino acids that are broken down into pyruvate or other intermediates of CAC?

A

Glucogenic Amino Acids

85
Q

What do you call amino acids that enter catabolic energy pathways as acetyl CoA?

A

ketogenic amino acids (can be converted to ketone bodies when glucose availability is low)

86
Q

Can some amino acids be glucogenic AND ketogenic?

A

Yes some AA are both glucogenic (broken down to pyruvate or other intermediates of CAC) and ketogenic (broken down to acetyl CoA)

87
Q

True or false?: the amount of atp formed by catabolism of carbon skeleton depends on where it enters pathways

A

Yes

88
Q

3 Steps of Protein Metabolism

A
  1. N containing side group of amino acid is removed by deamination or transamination
  2. Carbon skeleton forms
  3. carbon skeleton can be converted into pyruvate, acetyl CoA or intermediate of CAC to undergo CAC for ATP
89
Q

What is the simplest and least costly macronutrient to convert to triglycerides (main storage form of energy in body) for storage needs?

A

fatty acids are easier to convert to triglycerides then glucose or amino acids are to convert to triglycerides for storage

90
Q

What happens to extra sources of energy instead of being catabolized?

A

stored

91
Q

Do people have different energy storage values based on body size and fitness?

A

Yes storage values can differ greatly based on size and fitness of a person

92
Q

What happens to excess glucose if cells needs are met?

A

glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver or muscle glycogen stores

93
Q

How is glucose converted to glycogen by liver?

A

excess glucose is converted to glycogen through enzymatic actions of glycogen synthase

94
Q

How is glucose converted to glycogen in muscles?

A

pancreas releases insulin in response to glucose in the blood, allows cells to take up the glucose inside the muscle cells

95
Q

What has more storage space for glycogen, the liver or all of the skeletal muscles?

A

skeletal muscles

96
Q

About how much glycogen can be stored in the body (g)?

A

415-425 (can vary a lot based on size and fitness)

97
Q

What happens to glucose when cells energy needs are met and glycogen stores are full?

A

excess glucose stored as fat (in adipose tissue, adipocytes)

98
Q

What is the process by which acetyl CoA (derived from cho from glycolytic pathway - glucose to pyruvate to acetyl CoA) produces fatty acids?

A

Lipogenesis

99
Q

What is lipogenesis?

A

production of fatty acids from acetyl CoA (derived from CHO from glycolytic pathway)

100
Q

When triglycerides are stored as fat, what happens in liver?

A
  • absorption of triglycerides leads to lot fat in liver
  • most of this fat is incorporated into VLDLs, while some remains in liver
  • liver released VLDL into blood
101
Q

When VLDL are in the blood, how do triglycerides from VLDL get into cells?

A

lipoprotein lipase breaks triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol so they can enter cells, then triglyceride reformed inside cell (requires very little energy)

102
Q

How does eating CHO affect fatty acid catabolism?

A

When CHO consumed, glucose is catabolized to make ATP, stopping the breakdown of fatty acids for ATP, results in synthesis and storage of triglycerides in adipocytes

103
Q

Process of lipogenesis and fatty acid conversion explain why high CHO consumption can lead to…

A

accumulation of body fat

lipogenesis: when energy needs met and glycogen stores full, lipogenesis converts 2C acetyl CoA (derived from CHO) to fatty acids

fatty acid conversion: breakdown of triglyceride outside cell and reformation inside cell requires little energy and is primary route for storing excess fatty acids and CHO (2C acetyl CoA)

104
Q

Why can’t ketogenic amino acids be used to make glucose?

A

ketogenic amino acids are turned into 2C acetyl coA, the pathway of pyruvate to acetyl coA is irreversible, 2C acetyl CoA can not be converted to 3C pyruvate and therefore can not be converted to 6C glucose

105
Q

Name 3 ways Energy is used in the body

A

Metabolism
Ion transport
Cellular maintenance/repair
Physiological Functions (breathing)
Physical Activity (small portion)

106
Q

When there is a surplus of food, fate of energy (whether it is stored/burned) is determined by..

A

Hormones

107
Q

What role do hormones play in metabolism?

A

key hormones direct / regulate metabolic activities

108
Q

Where is Thyroid Hormone produced?

A

Thyroid Gland (base of throat)

109
Q

What is the general function of the thyroid hormone?

A

Increases or Decreases rate of metabolism

110
Q

How does Thyroid increase and decrease rate of metabolism?

A

Increases rate of glucose catabolism, lipolysis and protein synthesis

111
Q

Thyroid levels decrease when….

A

Food is not available (starvation, fasting)

112
Q

Thyroid levels increase during…

A

growth and development

113
Q

What is the general function of insulin?

A

promotes energy storage and inhibits energy use

114
Q

What is insulin’s role in metabolism?

A

Directs liver and muscle to slow glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen) and increase glycogenesis (glucose stores as glycogen)

115
Q

Insulin increases…

A

fatty acid uptake and triglyceride synthesis by adipocytes

116
Q

Does insulin play a role in protein metabolism?

A

Yes, stimulates protein synthesis in cells

117
Q

Is insulin a anabolic or catablic hormone?

A

Anabolic (making of larger molecules), happens when fed

118
Q

Is thyroid catabolic (fasted) or anabolic (fed) hormone?

A

Both

119
Q

What are the 3 catabolic (fasted) hormones?

A

Glucagon, cortisol, epinephrine

120
Q

When are catabolic hormones released?

A

Fasting, low blood sugar, stress, exercise, SNS (fight or flight)

121
Q

What is the general function of catabolic hormones?

A

Increase availability of energy from storage

122
Q

What happens in body in response to overnight fast?

A

Glucagon tells liver to increase glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen into glucose) and increase gluconeogenesis (convert glucogenic AA into pyruvate and then glucose)

123
Q

While glucagon is signalling to increase glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, what does. the body use as main source of fuel?

A

fatty acids

124
Q

What switches body from state of catabolism (fasting) to anabolism when you break the fast?

A

Insulin

125
Q

During starvation, when liver glycogen stores are depleted, what occurs in body?

A
  • Muscle cells rely more on fatty acids for energy
  • body finds alternative sources of glucose (gluconeogenesis and ketogenesis)
  • muscle cells breakdown to release amino acids (proteolysis) which liver can use if glucogenic for gluconeogenesis
126
Q

The energy balance is simply Input vs output: true or false?

A

FALSE, much more at play

127
Q

What is the energy currency of the cells?

A

ATP

KIN 275 (13 decks)

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