Module 6.4 Flashcards
What are clones
Clones are genetically identical organisms or cells .
what is vegetative propagation
reproduction from vegetative parts of a plant - usually an over wintering organ
how are clones produced
clones are produced by asexual reproduciton in which the nucleus is divided by mitosis .
-Mitosis creates two identical copies of the DNA ,w hich are then separated into two geneticlaly idetical nuclei before he cell divides to fom two genticlaly idential cell .
advantages of natural cloning part one
if the conditions for growth are goof for hte parent , theyw ill aloso be good for the offspirng
advanatges of natural cloning 2
cloning is relatively rapid - so the population can increase quicky to take advanatage of the suitble environment onditions .
advanatges of natural clonign 3
reproduction can be carried out , even if there is on one parent and sexual reproduction is not possible
disadvantages of natural cloning
offspirng may become over crowded
disadvanatges of natueal cloning 2
no genetic diversity
disadvanatges of natural cloning 3
the population shows little variation
disadvantages of natural cloning4
the selection is not possible
disadvanatges of natural cloning 5
if the environment changes to be less advanatageous the hwole population is suscpetible .
what are rubbers or stolen
more plants grow horizontal stems that can form roots at certian points . if they grow on the surface on the growud
what ae rhizoomes
if they re udnergodud
-sime are rhizozomes are adapted , s thickcened over wintering organs from which one or more new stems will grow in the spring .
what are suckers
suckers are new stems from the roots of plant - these may be close to the base n older stem or could be distanced away . In all cases , the original horizontal branch may di ,leving the new stem as a separat indivudal .
what are bulbs
they are an over-wintering mechansisms for many perennial moncotuledoous plnts . BUlbs consist of an underground stem from which grow a series of fleshy leaf bases .
what apixla buds
which will grow into a new plant in the spring . OFTEN , a bulb contains mroe than one apical bud a dn each will grow into new pl .
what are corms
corms are often mistaken for bulbs , HOwever , corms are solid rather than fleshy like a bul .
-A CORM , is an underground stem with scaly leaves , nd buds . Corms remain in the ground over witner , In the spring the buds grow to produc on or more new palns
what are leaves
the kalanchoe plant reproduces asexually , , as clones foew on rhe leaf margins , the immature plants drop off the leaf and take root .
what are tubers
tubers are another type of udneround stem . POTTOES ARE TUBERS , ONE POTATO WIL GROW INTO ONE OR MORE PALNTS ,E ACH NEW PPLNTS CAN PRODCE MAN NEW TUBERS .
NATURAK CLONING in mammals
mammals clone when idneitical twins are formed . THIS IS WHEN A FERTILISED EGG (ZYGTOWE) divides as normal , but the two daughter cells then split to become two separate cells . ERach cell gorws and evelop into a new idnviidual .
what are micropropagation
growing large numbers , of new plants , from meristem , tissue taken from a sample plant .
what is tissue culture
growing new tissues , organs or palnts from certain tissues cuts from a sampel plant .
what i the way of cutting stem overview
to make a cutting , a stem is cut betwee two elaf joints . (NODES ) , the cut end of the stem is then palced in mosit soil . new roots will grow from the tissues int he stem 0 usually from the node , but they amy grow from other parts of th eburied sem
what to do if a plant does not take root easily
-other plants ma need further treatment
-Dipping , the cut stem , in rooting hormone helps to stimulate , root frwoth .
-It may also be helpfl to wound or remove the bark from the cut en dof the stem as this encourgaes the plant to produce CALLUS .
First place cutting can taje place
root cuttings in which a section of root is buried just below the soil surface and produces new shoots .
second place cuttings can take place
scion cuttings , which are dormant woody twigs .
third place cutting can take plce
leaf cuttings , in hwich a leaf is placed on moist soil . The leaves , develop new steams and new roots , Some leves my produce many new plants from one cutting .
what conditios is tissue culture carried out in
tissue culture is a techianue used to grwo a SMALL SAMPLE of ells or tissues . IT IS CARRIED OUT in a nutrient medium under sterile conditios .
-THE APPLICANTS OF PLANTS , growth usbtances at the correct , tie can encouage the cells in the growin tissue to differentiate .
microprogaation step one
suitable plant mterial is selected and cut into small peices . These re called explants . Explants , could be tiny pieces of leaf , stem , root or bud . Mmeristems , tissue is often used as this is always free from virus infection .
micropropagation step two
the expalnt are sterilised using diulte blech or alcohol . This is essential to kill any bactieria and fungi , as these would thrive in the conditions supplied to help the plant grow well .
micropropagation 3
the explants are placed on sterile growth medium , contining suitable nutrients , such as glucose , amino acids and phospahtes .
-The gel also contains high concnertations of the plant growth substanes , auxin , cytokinin .
-THIS STIMULATES , THE CELLS OF EACH explant , to dividie by mitotisis to forma allus ( mass o undifferentiaited totipotent vlles ) .
micropropagation 4
once a callus has fomred , it is divided to produce a larger number of smaller clumps of undifferentiited cells .
microprogaation 5
these small clumps , of cells are stimulated to grow ,, ddivide and differentiaite into different plant tissues .
-This is achieved by omving the cells to different rowth media .
-EACH medium , contins different ratios auxin and cytokin
micropropagation 6
once tiny plantelets have been formed , these are transferred to greenhosue to be grown in compost or soil and acclimatised to nromal growing palnts .
advantages of articial cloning
cloning is a reltive rapid method , of producing new plants comapred with growing plnts from seed .
advantages of artificial cloning 2
cloning can be carried ou where sexual reproduction is not possible .
-Plants , that have lost thier abilitiy to breed sexually , can be reproduced . for example commercially gorwn bananas , PLANTS THAT RE HARD TO GROW FROMS EED CAN BE REPRODUCED ,
advantages of artifical cloning 3
the plant selected will all be genetically idenitcal to the parent plant . The will therefore display the same desirable chaarcterisitcs , such as high yield resitnce to a common pest or disease or apartciular coour or flwoer .
advanatges of artificial clonin g 4
if the original plant had an unusual combination og characteristics due to sleective breeding or genetic ., modification , then this combination cn be retained without the risk of losign the combinaiton through sexual reproduction .
advantages of artifical cloning 5
the new plants are all uniform in thier phenotpes , which makes them easier to grow and harvest /
advanatges of artificial cloning 6
using the apical bud as an explant for tissue culture ensures the new plants are free from viruses .
disadvanatges of artificial cloning
tissue culture , is labour intensive
disadvantages of artifical cloning 2
it is expensive to set up the facilitites to perform tissue culture successfully .
disadvanatges of artificial cloning 3
tissue culture , can fail due to micorbial contmainaito
disadvanatages of articial cloning 4
all the cloned offspring , are geneticlly idenitcal and re therefore susceptivle to the sme pest nd or disease .
-CROPS grown in monocultures , allow rapid spread of a disease or pest betwen the closel planted crop plnts .
disadvantages of artificial cloning 5
there is no egentic variation excep tthat introudced by mutation .
what is embryo twinning
splitting an embryo to create two genetically identical embryos .
what is enucleeation
removal of the cells nucleus
somatic cell nuclear transfer
a technique that invovles transferring , rhe nucleus from a somatic cell to an egg ce; /
why do cells hve to b totipotent
such cells can dviid nd differentiite into all types of clel foun in the adult organissm . In animals the only truly totipoen cells are very earl embryo cells /
one reason why reproductive cloning can be usueful
ELITE FARM ANIMALS PRODUCED BY SELECTIVE BREEDING / AS or GM
for exmaple , a aprticulary goo didnivudal bull whoe vlaue is as a stud - supplying sperm for artifical insemination .
second reason why reproductive cloning can be useful
genetically modified animals , developed with unusual characerisitcs , for exmape , goats that produce spider silk in their milk and cows that rpoduce less methane .the
he two main rehxniques to achieve reproductive cloning
-emvyro twinnning
*CNT
embryo splitting
mammals , can produce idneital offspirngs , if an embryo veru early in development . This procss gives rise to an IVF .
IVF 1
A zygtote ffertilsied egg by ivf
IVF 2
the zygote , is alloed to divide by mitosis to form a small ball of cells .
IVF 3
The cells are separated and allowed to continue dividing .
IVF 4
each small mass of cells is placed into the uterus of a surrogate mother .
scnt 1
an egg is obtianed and its nucleus is removed known as enucleaiton .
scnt 2
a nromal body cell (somtic cell ) , from the adult to be clones is isoalted and may havve the nucelus removed .
scnt 3
the complete adult somatic cell or its nucelus fused witht he empty cell by applying an electric shock .
scnt 4
the shock also triggers the egg cell to sttart feeloping though it had jut been fertilsied .
scnt 5
the cell undegroes mitosis to produe a small ball of cell .
scnt 6
the ogung embry is palce dinot the uterus of a surrogate mother .
what is non reproductive clonin
non reproductive cloning is the production of cloned cells and tissues for purposes other thaan reproduction .
therapetuci cloning
-new tisseus and orgns cna be grown as repalcement parts of people who are not well . - SKIN
SKIN CN BE grown iIBF , to ACT A GRFT for over burned areas .
Therapeutic cloniing - cloned cells have been used to
repair damage to th spinal cord of a mouse and to restore the capabilit to produce insulin in the pancreas .
therapeutic cloning - potneital to grow whole enw organs
to replace diseased ones
why is tissues grown from own pateints cells be better
it will be geentically identical and o avoid rejection , which i a problem when transplanting doanted organs .
cloned for scientific research
cloned genetically identical embryos can be used for scieniifc research into the ction of genes , that control , developemnt and fifferentiation .
-DUFFERENTTION .
-They can also be used to grow specific tissues or organs for use in test ont he effects of meidicnl durgs .
arguments for artifical cloning (1)
can produce a whole herd of animals , with a high yield or shwoing an unusual combinaiton of charactersics (such as producing silk in their milk ) .
arguments for artifical cloning (2)
produces genetically identical copies of very high vale individuls retaining the same chaacterisics ll
arguments for artifical cloning (3)
using genertically idneitical embryos and tissues for scientific reserch allows the effects o egens an dhormones to be assessed with no interference from different genotypes .
arguments for artifical cloning (4)
trsting medicinal drugs on cloned cells and tissues avoifd uding naimals or people for testing .
arguments for artifical cloning (5)
cn prouce cells n tissues geenrticll identicl o he donor for use in repiring dme cused b diseae or accidnts .
arguments for articial cloning (6)
individual from an endangered species can be cloned ot increase numbers .
arguments against artifical cloning in animals (1)
lack of genetic variation may expose the herd to certain diseases or pests .
-Animals maybe produced with little regard for their welfare , which may have undesribale side effects such s meat rpucing .
arguments gisnt artifical cloning in annimals (2)
sucess rate of adult cell cloning is very poor and the method is a lot mor expenisve , than conventional breeding . Cloned animals may be less ehalthy and have shorter lfie spans .
arguments gisnt artifical cloning in annimals (3)
dodes not help incres egeenti diversit
biotechnology
the use of living organisms or prts of living organisms in industrial processes . his could be to produce , food , durgs or other products .
biotchenology in food - example an dorganims
ehtnaol in beer nd wine - yeast s
cabrondioxide to make bread rise - yeast s
lactic acid to mae chees eyoughot - lacotbacillus bacteir .
biotechnology in pharmaceutical durgs
pencillin - pencillium fungus
insulin - gm bacteira
biotechonoogy in enzymes
protease and lipase - bacteira
pectinase - aspergillus niger
one advantage of using microrganisms in biotechnology (1)
microorgansimss are relatively cheap and eay to grow .
second advantage of using microrgansims in bioechnology (2)
in most cases , the produciton of processes takes place a lower temps , tht woud be required to make the moelcuels by chemical engineering ,s ves fuel and reduced costs .
third advanatage of using microrganisms
the production can tak eplce a normal amopsheirc pressue , which is safer than using , chmical reactions that may veryhigh for successful manufacutre o certian meoclues .
what other organissms are used in biotechnology
genetically mdofiied mammlas , such a sheeps gaots cows , cn be used to produce useufl proiens .
-IN SOME MAMMALS , the proteins are icnorpte dinot the milka n cbn be eislyahrvested , GOATS have been gm to psses th eene for psider silk into their milk .
other forms of biotechnology
gene technology
genegic mdoifciton
selecitve breeding
how is youghurt created (1)
-Youghurt is miilk that hs undergone fermentation .
-BACTERIA converts lactose to lactic cid .
-the cidity dentures the milk protein cusign it to CAGULAE .
how is youghurt crested (2)
the bacteria partially idgests the milk making it easy to digest . Fermentation also produces the flavours of characerisic to otoughurt .
-SOME BACTEIRA HEL TO IMPROVE DIGESITON OF LACTOSE .
How is cheese created
milk is uauslaly pretreared with a culutre of bactiera hat can produce alctic acid from the lctose .
-Once its cifified the milk is mixed with rennit , hich is young in stomhc oung mammals
RENNIN COGAGUALED MILK PROTEINS INT HE PRESENCE OF CLCIUM IONS .
cheese created (2)
resulting solid clled cird , is separated frpm the liquid component by cutting stirring and heaing . THE BACTERI , continue , to grow producing more lactic cid , CURD IS PRESSED INTO MOULDS .
Cheese created (3)
treatmet , while making and pressing , the curd detemrines , charactersitics of cheee , Flavour , is determined the later irpenign and maturing processes . he
how is baking
MIXING - the ingredient are mixed together throgouhly by enading this produces dough .
PRPOVING FERMENTING - DOGUH LEFT EM SO YEAST ESPIRED AAERBOCIALY TO PRODUCING CO2 .
COOKING - the risen dough is baked anya lcohol vaporated the cooking proces .
alcoholic beverages
alcoholic bevarges are also the product o anaeboci respiration .
-WINE IS MADE USIN GRAPES THAT NTURLLY AHVE YEASTS ON SKIn w hen crushe dyeast uses thse usgars ot produce co 2 and alcohol .
advantages of using microrganisms
production of protein canbe many times faster than tht o animal or plnt protein .
advanatages of using micorogranisms 922)
the biomass producs has a very high protein content .
advanatges of using micorgranisms
production can be increased and decreased accoding to demand . 3
disadvantage of using microgransims 1
some people may not want to eat funa protein food that has been grown on waste .
disadvanatges of using micororganism 2
isolaiton of the protein - the mciorganisms are grown in huge fermeneters and need t be isolated fromt he materil on which they grow .
disadvanatges of using mciorogranisms
protein has to be purfiied to ensure it is not contaminared .
what hpappens n fermenters
cp,cercial dur production usses large stianless steel contrinerscalled fermenters , in shich the growing coniions .
why should TEMPERATURE BE CONTROLED in a fermenter
too hot and enzymes will be denatured , too cool nd growth will be limited .
why should nutrients availbility be controlled in a fermenet
micorogranisms require nutrients to gro and synthesise the rpdocut . Sources of carbon , nitorgen minerals and vitamins needed .
why should oxyygen availibity b controled in a fermeenter
most microrgansisms respire eroniclly .
wh is pH controlled in a fermener
enzyme activity and hence growgh and syntheissi are affectd ny extreme of ph .
why is concnetration of product monitored in a fermeneer
if a porduct is allwoe dot build up , it ma affect the syntheiss eprocess .
a general diagram of idnustrial fermenter
shown on he page 253
what is conitnous culture
some prodcuts are synthesised by the microrgansims during normal metabolism ,w ehen hey are actively growing. These are called primary metabolite , such prodctsare continually released from the cells and can ebe xtractec couslyf rom he fermenng borth . prevets opultionf rom being too dense , an i allows the mciorgansms to gow at a specfic rta .
what is batch culture
other products are produced only when the cells are pace dunder stress , SUCH AS HIGH POPULAION DENSITY or limited nutreint VAVAIALABBILITY . THESE RE CALLED SEOCNDAEY WMRABOLITES ad are producrdd msotly uring thr stationary phe of rowth .
-HERE CULTURE IS SET UP WITH A LIMITED QUANTITY AND SPEICIFC ITME .
what is asepsis and why is it important
asepsis is nsuring that sterilie conditon are miantianed . The nurient mediu would also support thr growht of unwated micoransims which owuld reduce produciton .
what could unwnted micorgnsims in a fermenter do
compete with the cultured microorgansisms for nuterientsan space .
-reduce the yield of useful products
spoi producr prdce toxic chemicals
asepsis stage one
the fermenter is run for six to eight days ,c ulture is then filtered to remove the cells .
asepsis stage two
the antibiotic is precipitaed as crystals byt he addition of potassium compounds . anbtiotic myb e MODIFIEID by the ction of other micororgnsims or by chemical means
asepsis stage three
the antibitoic is mixed wiht inert usbtanced and prepared for dmisnitration int abelt form as a syrup or as an injection .
whaat is biroemediation
it is th euse of micoronsism to clen hte soil of undergoudn wter on polluted isted . THe organsim convert the toxic pollutnts to less harmful substanced .
how cn bioremediaiton be used in unsuitbale condiotns
it cn add nturients such as molasses or pump oxyen or aerobic bactiera
advanatages of bioremediiation
-uses natural ssytems
-less labour equipemnt is required
-tretmen tis ini stu
-fewer aste products
-les irsk of exposure to clen ip perosnnel
Disadvantages of bioremedaition
HOWEVER BIOREMEIATION ONYSUTIBAE OFR CERTIAN PRODUCTS , HEAVY EMTL SUCH AS ADIU AND LEAD CNNOT BE RETE D.
what is agar
a polysaccharide made of galactose obtined from seweed which i ued to thicken the meidum inot gel
what is an aspetic technique
sterile gecnhiiqes used in cultuirng and mankpuating micorganisms .
micorhansimss will grow on almost any material that provides the cabon compound for …
respiraiton and a souce of nirgen for protein synthesis.
growing micorogrnsims on gaar plates invovl three main steps
-strilisation
inoculation
incubation
how do you sterilise agar meidum and all equipent
autclave for 1 min , hight temp is ahcived for boilng ter .
incooulation
neck of bottle contianing serilied nutrient gaar is passes thorgh lme
lid of pertri dish lfied slightlyt o aklow agar to e poured
… INOCULATION is in the intorudction of micorogrnais o the sterile meidum this can be ahiceved ina numeb way s
STREAKING
SEEDING
SPREADING
What is incubarion
the petri dish must be labeleld an op taped ot the bootm using two stiep f adhie and palced in wamr enivronmtn , make surei dosnet dry out quickl .
wha is a closed culture
it contians all the nutrients reuired for growth will udnergow popualiton eowh .
clsoed culture refers to popualtion inw hich all the ocndits are set t the start there is noe xchange in the xernal enviornemnt
growth curve same as fermenter
pAGE for referebce to growth curve .
LAG PHASE
-In the early part of population grotwh , the populaiton does not grow quickl .This is partly because the population is still small , but also because the organsimss are adjusting to hteir new enviornmnet .
-INVOLVING
TAKING UP WATER
CELL GROWTH
SWITCHING ON CERTIAN geens
log (exponentiaal ) phase
i the log (exponential ) phase , the organsisms hve adjusted to their enviornemtn . They each ahve the enzymes needed to surivie . Each individiaul , has sufficent nutrients and space to grow raipdily nd reproduce . THE POPLATION DOUBLES IN SIZE WITH EAC GEENRATION once ebery - min
the stationary phase
eventully the incresing numbers of orgnsims use up the nutrients and produce incresing amounts of wste products such as carbon dioide and other metabolites . The rate of population growth decines and the number of idnivudals ding increases untilt eh re reproduction rate eual the death rate .
THIS IS THE STATIONARY PHASE WHERE THERE IS NO POPULATION GORWT .
Death (decline ) phase
the nutrients run out and the concentration , of waste productions may become lethal . MORE INDIVIDUALS die than are prouced and the poplations begins to fall, evenutallya ll the organsimss will die .
what are primary metabolites
primary metbaolites produced udring the normal activities of the microoragnsims will be collected from a fermenter during the log pahse .
-In a fermenter the popultion is not kept in a clsoed culture , but conditions are maintained for optimal growth .
what are secondary metabolites
secibdary metabolites , are produced in the stationry phase . The popultion must be ekpt in a closed culture , nd he metabolties can e collected t the end of the statioary pahe or during the decline pahe .
immobilised enzyme
an enyzme hat is held i np place and no free to diffuse throug h the solution .
Why are immobilised enzymes so useful in biotechnology
immobilised enzymes are taken out of suspension and held so that they do not mix freely with the suvstrate ,
what is the advantage of immobilizing the enzyme (1)
-enzymes do not mix with the product , so extraction costs are loer
-the enzyme can be reused
advantage of immobilizing enzymes (2)
- a continous process is made esier as there are no cells rquringnutriend reproducing nd rleeasing waste products .
-The enzymes are surrounded by immobilsing matri x which protects them from extreme conditions - so higher temps or a wider ph range can be used without causing denaturing .
disadvanagtage of the immobilisd enzyme proess
setting it up is more expensive , and immobilised enzymes are usually less active than free enzymes making the process slower .
one method used ot imobilise enzymes is ADSORPTION
Enzyme moelcules are bound to supporting surface b a combination of hydrophobic interactions and ionic links
-SUITABLE SURFAVES include clay , porous carbon , glass , beafd and resisns .
THE ENZYME MOELCULES ARE BOUND WITH THE ACTIVE SIE EXPOED AND CCESSIBLE TO THE SUBSTRAE .
-hOWEVER , THE ACTIVE SITE , may be slightly distored by the addditional interactions affecting enzyme activity .
weakness of using adsopriton mehod
bonding forces are not laways stoenf and enyzms can become detached and leak into the reaction mixtre .
another way to immobilise enzymes - COVALENT BONDING
enzyme moleucles are bonded to a supporting surface such as cly using a strong covalent bond . The enzymes are bonded using a CROSS-LINKING AGENT , which may also link them in a chian .
drawback of covalent bonding as a method to immobilise enymes
the production of covalent bonding can be expensive and can distort the enzyme active site , reducing activity . However , the enzymes are much less likely to become detached and leak into the reaction mixture .
what is entrapment a way to immobilise enzymes
enzyme molecules are trapped in a matrix that does not allow free movement . The enzyme molecules are unffected by entrapment and reamin full actice .
-However , the substratre moelcules must diffuse into the entrapment matirx and the product moelcules mus beable ot diffus eou .
a way to immobils enezymes (2)
The method is thereofre suitable only for processes where the substrate and product molecles are relatively small . Calcium alginte beads are often used in schools to immobilise enxymes by entrpament . INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES MAY ALSO USE cellulose mesh .
check figure 1 262
…
what is membrane sepration
enzymes molecules are seprated from the reaction mixture yby a partially permeable membrane .
-AS IN entrapment the susbtrate and product moelcules must e small enoguh to pass through the partially permeable membrane b diffusion .
THIS CESS to rhe enzymes my limitt he reaction rate .
