Module 4 Flashcards
Function of the endocrine system
Controls the secretions of hormones from several glands throughout the body
Glands
Organs that secrete or release hormones into the bloodstream.
Hormones
Chemical substances released from gland in small amounts
Chemical messengers that transfer info and instructions from one area of the body to another.
What factors do glands and hormones influence? (6)
Growth and development
Tissue formation
Metabolism
Homeostasis
Sexual function
Mood
Endocrinologist and endocrinology
-physician that diagnosis and treats conditions of endocrine system
- study of the endocrine system; subspecialty of internal medicine
Name the 8 major glands of endocrine system
Pituitary
Pineal
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Pancreas
Adrenals
Ovaries,testes
Thymus
Location and function of the pituitary gland?
Base of the brain, under the hypothalamus
Master gland; regulates other endocrine glands
Location and function of the pineal gland?
Brain
Regulates sleep
Location and function of the thyroid gland?
Neck (anterior)
Metabolism, growth and development
Location and function of the parathyroid gland?
Neck (posterior)
Maintains calcium (increase calcium blood levels) and phosphate levels
Location and function of the pancreas ?
Epigastric area of abdomen
Blood glucose regulation
Location and function of the adrenals ?
Abdomen, above the kidneys
Regulate sodium and potassium, carbohydrate metabolism, sex hormones, epinephrine secretions in emergencies
Location and function of the gonads?
Pelvis
Male and female secondary sex characteristics
Location and function of the thymus?
Mediastinum
Regulates the immune system
Divisions of the pituitary gland
Adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis
Hormones secretes by adenophyophysis
Growth hormone (GH)
Adrenocorticotropin Hormone (ACTH)
Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Follicle stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Prolactin Hormone
Melanocyte stimulating hormone
Growth Hormone
Regulates growth and development of the bones and muscles, and other organs
ACTH
Regulates the growth of the adrenal cortex
TSH
Stimulates growth of the Thyroid gland
FSH and LH
Controls the sex glands in males and females
Prolactin hormone
Stimulates the growth and development of the mammary gland.
Melanocyte stimulating hormone
Controls skin pigmentation
Target organs of the adenohypophysis hormones
TSH: thyroid gland
ACTH : adrenal cortex
FSH and LH: testes and ovaries
Prolactin: breast
GH: liver, bone, muscle,organs
Hormones by the neurohypophysis?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin
ADH
Regulates the secretion or reabsorption of water in the kidneys
Oxytocin
Stimulates the uterus to contract during childbirth
And the release of milk from the mammary glands
Pineal gland hormones
Melatonin
Serotonin
Melatonin
Regulates the body’s sleep-wake cycle
Serotonin
Stimulates the nervous system by releasing neurotransmitters, smooth muscles and gastric secretions
Hormones of the thyroid
Thyroxine (T4)
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Calcitonin
T4 and T3
Maintains and re guy lates the basic metabolic rate of the body, growth and development , and metabolism of nutrients, water, vitamins, and minerals
Calcitonin
Involved in bone and calcium metabolism
(Lowers the blood calcium levels)
Parathyroid gland hormone and it’s function?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Maintaining calcium levels and the metabolism of phosphorous
Islets of langerhans
Endocrine portion of the pancreas that consist of cell clusters
What hormones does the islets of Langerhan secrete?
Insulin
Glucagon
Somatostatin
Function of insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin?
Insulin: stimulates cells to take in glucose from bloodstream for metabolism
Glucagon: breaks down glucagon to glucose, increasing blood glucose levels
Somatostatin: decrease production of insulin and glucagon
Gastrointestinal mucosa
Epithelial lining of the stomach and intestine; secretes several hormones related to digestion
Four hormones of the gastrointestinal mucosa
Gastrin
Secretin
Cholecystokinin
Enterogastrone
Gastrin
Stimulates production of gastric acid in the stomach
Secretin
Stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes, bile, and other secretions from the intestines involved in digestion of food.
Cholecystokinin
Controls the gallbladder
Enterogastrone
Regulates secretions from the stomach
Two parts of adrenal glands ?
Adrenal cortex (outer portion)
Adrenal medulla ( inner portion)
3 type of hormones from adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
Androgens
Function and examples of Glucocorticoids
Involved in carbohydrate metabolism
Cortisol
Corticosterone
Function and example of mineralocorticoids?
Regulation of electrolytes and fluid balance
Aldosterone
Function and example of androgens?
Stimulates the development of male sex characteristics.
Testosterone and androsterone
Hormone secreted by adrenal medulla
Catecholamines
Function and example of catecholamines?
Involved in nervous system regulation; involved in sympathetic nervous system function.
Dopamine
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Structures and the gonads
Ovaries
Testes
Placenta
Hormones released by the sex organs
Ovaries: estrogen and progesterone
Testes: testosterone
-regulates female and male sex organs
Placenta
Temporary endocrine organ that secrete hormones involved in the growth and development of the fetus.
Hormones secreted by the thymus
Thymosin
Thymopoietin
Cushing Disease
When adrenal cortex produces too much of the hormone cortisol.
Common causes of Cushing disease
Tumor in the adenohypophysis or a tumor in the adrenal gland
Cushing disease symptoms
Muscle weakness, fatigue, mood swings, and easy bruising
Physical exam signs of Cushing disease
Hypertension
Fat deposits in the face
Buffalo jump
Hirsutism
Edema
Skin discoloration
Osteoporosis
Diagnosis and treatment of Cushing disease
Diagnosis made by testing cortisol levels in the blood
Tumors may need surgical resection
Wean off corticosteroid if patient is using.
Diabetes mellitus
Disease with abnormal glucose metabolism
- when insulin is either not produced by the pancreas or the cells of the body do not respond to insulin
Two types of diabetes mellitus
IDDM: beta cells of pancreas no longer produce insulin
NIDDM: cells do not respond to insulin
Diabetic keto acidosis
Condition where the body is using fat as a source of fuel, rather than carbohydrates
Early manifestation symptoms of diabetes?
Polyuria
Polydipsia
T1: polyphagja, fatigue, weight loss
T2: blurred vision
Complications of Diabetes mellitus
Hyperglycemia
Hypoglycemia
Gangrene, foot ulcers
Cataracts, glaucoma, retinopathy
CAD, stroke
Hypertension, renal failure, albuminuria
UTI, impaired healing, chronic skin disease
Hyperthyroidism (definition and causes)
Excess of thyroid hormone secreted by thyroid gland
Causes:
Graves’ disease
Toxic multi modular goiter
Thyroiditis
Benign or malignant tumors
Graves’ disease
Autoimmune disease where antibodies stimulate the thyroid to produce too much T4
Toxic multinodular Goiter
Enlargement of the thyroid gland that then produces too much thyroid hormone.
Symptoms of hyperthyroidism
Hyperactivity
Nervousness
Irritability
Sweating
Palpitations
Tachycardia
Intolerance to heat
Weight loss
Diarrhea
Easy fatigue
Hyperthyroidism treatments
Medications
Radio-iodine treatments that destroy the thyroid tissue
Partial thyroidectomy
Hypothyroidism definition and causes
Deficiency of thyroid hormone
Causes: Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
Treatments for hyperthyroidism
Radiation treatments
Thyroid surgery
Certain medications
Symptoms of hypothyroism
Fatigue
Weakness
Dry skin
Intolerance to cold
Bradycardia
Hair loss
Weight gain
Dyspnea
Treatment for hypothyroidism
Supplementation with synthetic thyroid hormone
Misc symptoms of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism
Function of nervous system
-Coordinates all the activities of the body
-Received info from sensory receptors and then uses this info to coordinate the activities of the muscles, organs, and glands to maintain homeostasis.
Neurology
Neurologist
Neurosurgeon
Two divisions of the nervous system
CNS: brain and spinal cord
PNS: connects CNS to the rest of the body
What protects the CNS
Protected by the skull, vertebrae of the skeletal system, and the meninges
Layers of the meninges
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia Mater
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Produced by the ventricles of the brain
Surrounds the brain and spinal cord; cushions and protects these structures from shock.
Main parts of the brain
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Diencephalon
Brain Stem
Cerebrum
Contain nerve centers that control all sensory and motor activity, memories, consciousness, emotions, and voluntary movement
Cerebellum
Coordinates sensory perception and motor output
Parts of the diencephalon
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Relay center for incoming sensory and motor impulses
-sends messages onto the cerebrum
Hypothalamus
Regulates the autonomic nervous system
Serves has a connection between ANS and the nervous system
Brain Stem
Connects the spinal cord with the cerebrum and cerebellum
Cranial nerves originates from brain stem and innervate the face and neck
Controls breathing, swallowing, coughing, vomiting, heartbeat, and blood pressure
Parts of the brain stem
Pons
Midbrain
Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord
Conducts sensory impulses from the PNS to the brain and motor impulses from the brain to the spinal nerves
Processes the body’s reflexes
Peripheral nervous system
Contains the nerves that come from the brain and spinal cord that innervate the rest of the body
Cranial nerves
12 pairs
Nerves that originate in the brain
Innervate the senses, motor movements of the head/shoulders, swallowing, breathing, speech , and the muscles of the thoracic and abdominal cavities
Spinal nerves
Originate in the spinal cord
Branch out into smaller nerves that innervate the rest of the body.
2 roots of a nerve
Dorsal root and ventral root
Dorsal root
Carries sensory input to the spinal cord to be sent to the brain
Ventral root
Carries motor output to the muscles and the organs
Two divisions of the peripheral nervous system
Autonomic and somatic
Autonomic nervous system
Controls involuntary functions of the body
Ex. Sweating, gland secretion, blood pressure, smooth muscles
Two divisions of the autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
Sympathetic branch
Activated in emergency situations and creates the fight or flight response to stress.
Parasympathetic branch
Regulates the daily functioning of the body and maintain homeostasis
What is normally looked at when assessing nervous system conditions?
Assessment of mental status and memory
Cranial nerve testing
Muscle tone
Gait observation
Reflexes, sensation and coordination
What is Dementia?
Progressive deterioration of a patients cognitive abilities and memories that then impair ADL, thinking, reasoning, and remembering
Four common dementia diseases
Alzheimer’s dimentia
Vascular dementia
Frontotemporal dementia
Parkinson’s disease
Risk factors for dementia
Advanced aging
Frequency of dementia increases with each decade of life.
Diagnostic tool for dementia
Mini mental state examination (MMSE)
MMSE
Screening tool used to help with the diagnosis of dementia
Assesses pts memory, orientation, language comprehension, copying and naming .
Treatment for dementia
Cholinesterase inhibitors
What are brain tumors
Tumors that decline in the brain that arises from brain tissue or metastasize from other primary tumors
Some Symptoms of brain tumors
Progression of neurological deficit
Seizure
Headache
Dementia
Personality change
Gait disorder
Three imaging that can view brain tumors
Position emission tomography scan (PET)
CT scan
MRI
Glioma
Tumor made of neurological tissue; arising from glial cells
Neuroma
Tumor of the nerve cell and nerve fibers
Oligodendroglioma
Malignant tumor of the central nervous system.
More easily removable than astrocytoma and responds better to chemotherapy
Astrocytoma
Tumor of the brain made of astrocytes
-Most common primary metastatic
-Poor prognosis
-Difficult to surgical remove and poor response to radiation
Meningioma
Benign tumor of the meninges.
Can be cured by surgical removable
Stroke/cerebrovascular accident
When blood flow to the brain is disrupted
What conditions does cerebrovascular accident refer to?
Strokes, aneurysms, etc
Two types of strokes
Hemorrhagic and ischemic
Hemorrhagic stroke
When a blood vessel in the brain ruptures
Ischemic stroke
When a blood clot blocks the flow of blood to the brain
Two types of ischemic stroke blood clots
Thrombosis
Embolism
Embolism
Clot travels to the brain from another part of the body
Thrombosis
A clot that develops in the cerebral artery
Compression
Blood flow to the brain is disrupted by compression of the artery from the outside, such as a tumor
Aneurysm
Weakness in the blood vessel wall that is at risk of a hemorrhage
Infarct
Area of tissue damage or death due to lack of blood supply
Treatments for stroke or cerebrovascular accidents
Reestablish blood flow very quickly by:
Relieving compression of an artery
Stopping hemorrhages
Removing a blood clot
Require rapid medical support and intervention!
Seizures
Episode of sudden abnormal excessive activity of the CNS leading to changes in attention or behavior that patient is unable to control
Epilepsy
Chronic disorder of the brain where a patient experienced recurrent seizures
What is Multiple Sclerosis?
Disease of the CNS , caused by the immune system (autoimmune)
Characterized by inflammation, demyelination, and then scarring of the nerves
Plaque
Damage to the myelin stealth
Symptoms caused by plaques
Tremors
Spasms
Muscle weakness of the limbs
Incoordination
Paraesthesia
Visual and speech disturbances
Symptoms of multiple Sclerosis
Tremors
Spasms
Muscle weakness of the limbs
Incoordination
Paraesthesia
Visual and speech disturbances
Diminished reflux
Ataxic movement
Dysphasia
Blurred vision
Treatments for multiple sclerosis
Oral steroid medication for acute attacks or worsening symptoms
Parkinson’s disease
Disorder where nerves cells that control movement begin to deteriorate
This decreases the amount of dopamine
Symptoms of Parkinson’s disease
Tremors of the extremities (start at one side of body and progresses to other side)
Bradykinesia
Akinesia
Rigid limbs
Shuffling gait
Stooped posture
Depression, cognitive impairment , dementia, sleep disorders
Treatment for Parkinson’s disease
Medications to increase the amount of dopamine are used to manage tremor symptoms and other physical symptoms.
Deep brain stimulation
Surgical procedure to treat PD when medications are no longer effective.
Surgical planted devices that deliver electric stimulations of the areas of the brain that control movement .
Special senses
Divisions of the nervous system that has specialized organs devoted to that sense
Ears, eyes, nose, and tongue
These organs are innervated by cranial nerves that detect senses
Ophthalmology
Ophthalmologist
Optometry
Optometrist
Eye professions
Otorhinolaryngology
Study of the eras, nose , and throat
ENT
Audiology
Audiologist
Hearing professions
Sections of the ear
Outer
Inner
Middle
Function and structures of the outer ear
Detects sound and funnels sound to the inner structures of the ear
Auricle and external acoustic meatus
Structures of the middle ear
Tympanic membrane
Ossicles
What are the 3 ossicle bones?
Malleus
Incus
Stapes
Middle ear
Air filled cavity in the temporal bone of the skull.
Mechanism of the middle ear
Sound waves reach the tympanic membrane , it vibrates, and those vibrations travel through the ossicles to the oval window.
Structures of the inner ear
Oval window
Vestibule
Cochlea
Semicircular canals
Cochlea
Inner ear structure that contains sensory receptors that sense hearing and transmit vibrations to the brain via the cochlear nerve
Cranial nerve pertaining to hearing
Cochlear nerve
Vestibular nerve
Function of vestibule and semicircular canal
Detect the body’s equilibrium , balance, and position.
External structures of the eye (5)
Orbit
Eyelids
Muscle of the eye
Conjunctiva
Lacrimal apparatus
Orbit
Cavity in the skull that contains eyeball
Lined with fatty tissue with openings for blood vessels and nerves to travel to eyeball.
Function of muscles in The eye
Extraocular muscles
Hold eye in place and allow rotational movement.
Conjunctiva
Mucous membrane that covers eyeball and protects eyeball surface
Lacrimal apparatus
Produces, stores and removes tears that lubricate and cleanse the eye.
Structures of the eyeball (12)
Sclera
Cornea
Aqueous humor
Pupil
Iris
Ciliary body
Choroid
Vitrous body
Retina
Macule
Fovea
Optic disk
Cranial nerve associated with sight
Optic nerve
Sclera
Outer layer of eyeball, ends at cornea
Forms the supporting wall of the eyeball.
Cornea
Anterior transparent portion of eyeball
Bends light and directs light through the lens to focus on the retina.
Pupil
Circular opening in the Iris
Expand and constructs to permit more or less light into the eye.
Iris
Colored portion of the eye
Controls how much light the pupil will permit
Lens
Located behind the pupil
Focuses light onto the retina
Ciliary body
Smooth muscle that changes the shape of the lens and secretes aqueous humor
Aqueous humor
Intraocular fluid that nourishes the cornea, lens, and surrounding tissues
Choroid
Internal membrane that prevents the internal reflection of light within eyeball
Also contains blood vessels
Vitreous humor
Jelly-like material behind lens, maintains eyeball shape
Retina
Inner most layer of eye which contains photoreceptors cells that detect dim and bright light
Translates light into nerve impulses that are sent to brain via the optic nerve
Rods and cones
Photoreceptors of the retina
Rods detect dim light and are used for night vision
Cones detect bright light and are used for color vision
Purpose of rods and cones
Translates light into nerve impulses that are sent to brain via the optic nerve
Macule, fovea , and optic disk function
The macula is the center portion of the retina that produces even sharper vision with its rods and cones. The fovea is the pit inside the macula with only cones, so vision can be at its sharpest.
Optic disk is blind spot on retina with no rods/cones; where nerve impulses are sent through optic nerve.
Structures of the nose (4)
Nares
Nasal septum
Nasal cavity
Cilia
Sections of the nose
External and internal section
Cranial nerve of the nose
Olfactory nerve
Function of the tongue
Aids in breathing
Moves food in the mouth while chewing
Moves food to the back of the larynx
What nerves are the tongue innervated by?
Facial nerve
Glossopharyneal nerve
Hypoglossal nerve
Visual acuity
Sharpness of vision
What method is used to test VA?
Snellen eye chart
*multicolored charts used to assess pt ability to recognize different colors
Tonometry
Measures Intraocular pressure
Tuning forks test
Used to test for hearing loss
Help distinguish between perceptive hearing loss and conductive hearing loss
What does the Rinne test assess?
Air conduction Hearing vs bone conduction hearing
Describe air conduction vs bone conduction
Explain the rinne test
What are the two types of hearing loss?
Conductive and sensorineural
Describe conductive hearing loss and it’s causes
Dysfunction to the middle or external ear; sound cannot travel to inner ear
Causes: obstruction by cerumen
Fluid in middle ear
Stiffness of the ossicles
Separation of ossicles from middle ear
Otosclerosis
Stiffness of the ossicles
Describe sensorineural hearing loss and it’s causes
Deterioration of the cochlea
Causes: aging (presbycusis)
Constant exposure to loud sound
Head trauma or disease
Treatments for hearing loss
Medication
Hearing aids
Cochlear implants: surgically implanted electronic devices used to stimulate the foxholes with sounds detected on a receiver
Acute otitis media
Bacterial infection of the middle ear
Chronic otitis media
Describes problem of the middle ear that does not improve; stays constant
Ex. Tympanic membrane rupture
Infection of middle ear that does not improve
Explain pathology of acute otitis media
Symptoms of acute otitis media
Otalgia
Hearing impairment
Increased pressure in ear
Fever
Tympanic membrane may appear erythemateous under a otoscope
Treatments for AOM/OM
Oral antibiotics
Nasal decongestants
Tympanocentesis ; to complete culture and relieve pressure
Myringotomy; drainage of fluid
Vertigo
Sensation of movement when there is no motion or an exaggerated sense of motion in Response to motion
Causes of vertigo
Disturbance in the inner ear from. Injury, infection, inflammation, or positioning
Meniere’s syndrome
Episodic vertigo, hearing loss, tinnitus, and pressure in one ear
Benign paroxysmal Positioning Vertigo
BPPV
Vertigo due to changing of position of the head
Cataracts
Opacities of the lens of the eye
Leading cause of blindness
Causes and symptoms of cataracts
Age
Genetic
Systemic disease (diabetes mellitus)
Symptoms : blurred vision
Treatments for cataracts
Surgical removal of lens and placement of intraocular lens implant
Phacoemulsification : cataracts is dissolved with ultrasound and then relived, and a lens implant put in place
Conjunctivitis
Inflammation of the conjunctiva
Pink eye
Causes of conjunctivitis
Bacterial/viral infection allergens, chemical irritants, and or trauma
Symptoms of conjunctivitis
Redness of eye
Increase tearing
Thick discharge from eye (viral:watery; bacterial: purulent )
Itchy and burning light
Blurry vision
Increased sensitivity to light
Glaucoma
Increased Intraocular pressure due to buildup of fluid that damaged the optic nerve and the photoreceptor cells
Explain the pathology of glaucoma
Two ways aqueous humor leaves the eye
Anterior chamber through the Trabecular mesh work
Canal of schlemn into the vascular system
Part of the ear that can be obstructed in AOM/OM, causing infection
Eustachian tubes
Two types of glaucoma
Acute angle-closed glaucoma
Chronic glaucoma
Difference between Acute angle-closed glaucoma and Chronic glaucoma
Symptoms and treatments for acute angle closure glaucoma
Severe eye pain, blurry vision
Medical emergency
Treatment: IV and topical medication to relieve pressure
Surgical or laser iridectomy to prevent another closure
Symptoms and treatment for chronic Glucoma
Elevated Intraocular pressure discovered in eye exams
Topical medical to relieve pressure
Trabeculoplasty: laser procedure
