module 2 review

Question 1

Bonobos

Answer 1

A species of chimpanzee which is known for less aggressive behaviours in favour of unique sexual practices.

Question 2

Evolution

Answer 2

The process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed and diversified from earlier forms during the history of the earth.

Question 3

Primatology

Answer 3

The study of the primate order including prosimians, monkeys, and apes.

Question 4

Sexual dimorphism

Answer 4

Marked differences in size or structure between males and females of the same species.

Question 5

Sexual selection

Answer 5

The evolution of traits for their reproductive benefits rather than survival benefits.

Question 6

Define the following concepts: “nature versus nurture”, cultural
determinism, biological determinism, and sociobiology.

Answer 6

cultural determinism = giving priority to culture over biology
- biological determinism= giving priority to biology over culture (
for determining traits etc)
Sociobiology= Sociobiology is a controversial field that studies
how natural selection, previously used only to explain the evolution of
physical characteristics, shapes behavior in animals and humans.- genetic
basis for human behavior

Question 7

In terms of anthropology’s approach to differences between men
and women, describe the four categories of evolutionary theories

Answer 7

Male strength hypotheses,male aggression, male bonding, and
womenns childbearing

Question 8

What is the male strength hypothesis? What is this hypothesis based on

Answer 8

Men are physically stronger than women, giving them supriority
Physical differences – they are larger, stronger muscles and less
fat, pelvis adapted for sprinting, larger hearts and lungs

Question 9

What is meant by the “baboonization of early human life”?

Answer 9

modelling early human behaviour after baboons

Question 10

What is the male aggression hypothesis?What hormone is this hypothesis often linked to? What is this hypothesis considered to be an adaptation to?

Answer 10

Male dominance is due to a biological basis for aggression as
men are more aggressive
Testosterone
To the male role of defense – links male dominance to male
aggression

Question 11

What is the main problem with studies linking male dominance
and/or social roles to male aggression?

Answer 11

Ignores differences within and between sexes

Question 12

What is the male bonding hypothesis?What is this hypothesis considered to be an evolutionary
adaptation to?Do women have the same genetic programming?What does this mean for women’s roles?

Answer 12

Supposed greater ability for men to form social bonds among
themselves
Genetically programmed as an adaptation to hunting
supposedly no
Unsuited for cooperative and political endeavors that give men
power and prestige

Question 13

What is the women’s childbearing hypothesis?

Answer 13

Reproductive role of women makes them absent from
cooperative and politicial activity in a non domestic sphere =
subordination

Question 14

What is a corollary of this argument? (WCBH)Are men considered to have the same capacity?What factors has a woman’s attachment to children been based
on?

Answer 14

the idea that women possess a maternal instinct
No- they cannot bear children or lactate, which is believed to
connect the mother to her children

Hormone levels, or the experiences of pregnancy, labor, and
nursing

Question 15

Animal models and gender What is the author’s concern about using evolutionary biology to
explain gender differences in people?

Answer 15

science will be used to justify sexism so men are naturally
dominant while women are submissive

Question 16

Define sexual selection.

Answer 16

How sex differences evolved- selection based on the mating
traits that were more favorable

Question 17

What were Darwin’s views on sexual selection?

Answer 17

That it could not have evolved through natural selection as they
are often costly to produce and make bearers less hidden from
predators

Question 18

in what two ways did Darwin believe sexual characteristics
evolved? two main components?

Answer 18

Could be useful for one sex to fight for partners- fight for access
to partners – male-male competition
Female choice resulting in ornaments

Question 19

in terms of selection sexual and differences between males and
females, what did Robert Trivers (1972) base his views on?

Answer 19

The idea that sexual differences are due to sexual selection
acting differently on males and female sbc of how they allocate
resources into succeeding generations
Females are limited by offspring they can successfully produce
and rear

Question 20

What is the main idea behind maternal instinct?

Answer 20

There is a biological basis for women to be connected to
offspring – to instinctively care for their young

Question 21

What is a modern version of maternal instinct?

Answer 21

The mother-infant bond, a mysterious connection that occurs
btwn woman and child shortly after birth

Question 22

What well-known animal studies were carried out to investigate this
maternal ability?

Answer 22

50’s /60’s study of rhesus monkeys
Infant macaques taken from mothers at birth and raised under
various conditions
Some socially deprived (did not exhibit normal behaviors)
Needed contact comfort
Females did not understand how to mate or care for children

Question 23

How does] the author relate the relevant finding for the Rhesus
monkey studies to the stereotype of women

Answer 23

They flatly contradict the notion of a simple bond between
mother and children

Question 24

What is the infidelity-based stereotype of male nature?

Answer 24

That males are more prone to infidelity while females aim to
mate for life

Question 25

Define extra-pair mating and review the studies concerning extra-
pair mating among birds and the concept of “cheating”.

Answer 25

Female birds often have more than one partner caring for their
offspring – birds were previously thought to be monogamous but
studies found dna of multiple males even though frequently one
male and one female are seen associating

Question 26

How do different biological interpretations of extra-pair mating
relate to scientists being subject to social influences?

Answer 26

Male and female scientists had different interpretations

Question 27

Identify the aspects of shantytown life that contribute to the high
infant mortality rate

Answer 27

No breastfeeding, substinence gardens, or stable marriages,
Multiple caretakers

Question 28

What two ways do mothers view their babies? (lifeboat ethics)

Answer 28

thrivers/survivors or “those born wanting to die”

Question 29

How does the high rate of infant death shape maternal thinking
and practice?

Answer 29

It led to passive infanticide

Question 30

Define “child sickness”?

Answer 30

hopeless” cases of children being sick

Question 31

Compare and contrast a chronic case of child sickness and an
acute form of child sickness.

Answer 31

Chronic – born small and wasted, with no vital source
Acute- doomed, die suddenly or instantly

Question 32

Define “praying women” and explain their role.

Answer 32

Local midwives/ traditional healers who advise women when to
let a child die

Question 33

How has infant death been routinized in the formal institutions of public
life? Give examples

Answer 33

infant death registration requires no documentation and the
death is unquestioned
nfant coffins are free
Doctors fail to recognize malnutrition of infants
The church pushes the idea that infant death is gods will

Question 34

briefly describe the Aka.

Answer 34

Hunter gatherer
Live in single family huts – nuclear families
High fertility and mortality rates
5-6 children birthed per women – 1 /5 will die before 15

Question 35

What are two pervasive and general tenets of Aka camp life?

Answer 35

Home represents the “public” part of life, while time outside of camp tends to be
relatively
“private.”

Question 36

Briefly describe the three mechanisms that promote sharing and
egalitarianism among the Aka.

Answer 36

restige avoidance – boastful people share less,
- rough joking – jokes about genitals of
boastful person to get individual to be more modest,
and demand sharing – simply ask
for something and it is given, promotes circulation of scare material goods (shoes, shirt,
necklace, spearpoints).

Question 37

In terms of Aka infancy, briefly describe Aka cultural practices
during infancy

Answer 37

Older infants are allowed to use and play with knives and other “adult” items. They
are
allowed to crawl into a parent’s lap while the parent is engaged in economic or leisure
activity. Individuals other than the mother and the father hold the infant. Infants are
taken on
the hunt and are seldom laid down. The infant can also breastfeed by simply reaching
for the
mother’s breast and can nurse while the mother walks.

Question 38

in terms of the cultural nexus of father-infant bonding, briefly
describe Aka father involvement in infancy

Answer 38

Aka fathers hold their very young infants during the day at least five times more than
fathers in other cultures. Where resources are not accumulable or men are not the
primary
contributors to subsistence, men generally spend more time in the direct care of their
children. They do activities together and fathers get to spend time with their children.
The
nature of husband-wife relations. Husband and wife are within sight of each other
46.5
percent of daylight hours, which is more than any other known society. Father-infant
bonding. Fathers pick up their infants because they intrinsically enjoy being close to
their
infants

Question 39

What have cross-cultural demonstrated in societies where
resources essential to survival can be accumulated or where
males are the primary contributors to subsistence?

Answer 39

Then males don’t spend with their kids

Question 40

What have cross-cultural demonstrated in societies where
resources are not accumulable or when men are not the primary
contributors to subsistence?

Answer 40

Fathers get to spend time with kids

Question 41

Briefly describe the three additional factors that seem to be
especially influential in understanding the extraordinarily high
level of Aka parental care.

Answer 41

1. Subsistence activities involve men, women, and children
   instead of occurring at
   different locations.
2. Couples spend more time together (46.5% of daylight
   hours) active cooperation (net
   hunt, night care).
3. Father-infant bonding. Seeking each other out and enjoying on
   another’s company

-lso gender egalitarianism and flexibility – men don’t control women, violent against
women is rare-nonexistent. Frequent moving and not retaining material goods that need
defending

Question 42

) Briefly describe European and American fathers’ interactions
with infants and young children

Answer 42

igorous rough-and-tumble play.

Question 43

What is rough-and-tumble play considered to do?

Answer 43

t is considered to create a father-infant attachment “bond” and develop social
competence.

Question 44

This type of play is not a significant feature for Aka fathers.
Identify and briefly describe the four factors considered
important for understanding the process of Aka father-infant
bonding.

Answer 44

Familiarity with the infant (communication), knowledge of caregiving practices (how to
hold an infant, how to soothe and infant), the degree of relatedness to the infant, and
cultural values and parental goals.

Question 45

What does American culture encourage? What does Aka
culture value? How does infant mortality factor in

Answer 45

American culture encourages individualistic aggressive competition; Aka culture values
cooperation, nonaggression, and prestige avoidance. Due to the high mortality rate, the primary parental goal for Aka is the survival of their infants, thus avoid rough and
tumble
play. In the US, infant mortality rates are markedly lower and, as a result, parental
concern for survival may not be as great

Question 46

In terms of role distance versus role embracement, how does this
dichotomy typically apply to American parents?

Answer 46

Fathers are more likely to distance themselves from the parenting role wile mothers are
more likely to embrace the parenting role. American women generally want to remain
in
primary control of the children, and while fathers may show interest in caregiving, they
are more likely to distance themselves from caregiving while embracing their roles as
the
breadwinners. Fathers do not actually like playing with their children, they would rather
work

Question 47

Does this apply to the Aka? Why?

Answer 47

This does not apply to the Aka, because Aka mothers and fathers embrace the parenting
role. Mothers and fathers want to hold their infants, and certainly they derive pleasure
from infant interactions. Aka fathers are not burdened with infant care if a father does
not
want to hold or care for the infant he gives the infant to another person. Overall, Aka
fathers embrace their parenting role as much as they embrace their hunting role.