Module 2- Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards
What do the following directional anatomical terms mean?
Superior (cranial)-
Inferior (caudal) -
Anterior (ventral) -
Posterior (dorsal) -
Medial -
Lateral-
Proximal -
Distal -
Superior (cranial)- upper / towards the head
Inferior (caudal) - away from head / lower
Anterior (ventral) - front
Posterior (dorsal) - back
Medial - toward the midline of body
Lateral - away from midline
Proximal - toward trunk or point of origin
Distal - away from trunk or point of origin
What are the four quadrants?
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
Right Lower Quadrant (RUQ)
Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
List what organs are in the Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
stomach,pancreas, liver, gallbladder, right kidney, right intestines
List what organs are in the Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
appendix, right ureter, right ovary and Fallopian tube, and parts of the small and large intestines.
List what organs are in the Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
stomach, pancreas, spleen, left liver, and parts of the small and large
List what organs are in the Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
left ureter, left ovary and Fallopian tube, and parts of the small and large intestines.
Describe physical positioning using medical terminology:
Supine
Prone
Right lateral recumbent position
Left lateral recumbent position
Fowlers position
Supine (PT lying on back face up)
Prone( PT lying on stomach Facedown)
Right Lateral recumbent position (PT lying on right side)
Left Lateral recumbent Postion (PT lying on left side)
Fowlers position (PT lying on back with upper body upright)
What are the different Body planes?
Frontal plane (coronal plane)
Sagittal plane (median plane)
Transverse plane (Horizontal plane)
List all the body cavities:
Cranial cavity
Spinal cavity
Thoracic cavity
Diaphragm
Abdominal cavity
Abdomino-pelvic cavity
Pelvic cavity
what are the 3 major bones in the foot?
Tarsals ,metatarsals, phalanges
What are the two major bones in your lower leg?
Fibula and Tibia
List the 3 major bones in your hands?
Carpals, Metacarpals, and phalanges
List the four bones in the skull
TOPFree
Temporal, Occipital, Parietal, and Frontal bone
what are the 3 types of joints?
Immovable, slightly movable, freely movable
What are the 6 types of freely movable joints?
Ball and socket joint
Condyloid joint
Gliding joint
Hinge joint
Pivot joint
Saddle joint
Why can a broken bone result in excessive bleeding?
Our bones have a rich blood supply and larger bones such as our femur (thigh bone) can = 1-2 liters of blood loss
what is the normal path of blood throughout the circulatory system?
Vena cava, RA, Tricuspid, RV, Pulmonic valve, Pulmonary artery, Lungs, Pulmonary veins, LA, Bicuspid (Mitral) Valve, LV, Aortic valve, Aorta
What is perfusion?
The movement of blood through tissues
What is the body’s response when cardio output is low ?
- When your cardiac output is low, your adrenal glands also release more epinephrine (adrenaline). It travels in the bloodstream and stimulates your heart to beat faster.
- Beating faster helps to maintain cardiac output & stroke volume
What is cardio output and what determines it?
the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute
(Volume/Min)
Cardio output = Stroke volume (Volume/beat) x Heart Rate (beats/min)
What is the difference between veins and arteries and their structure.
- Arteries carry blood away from the heart, and veins carry blood towards the heart.
-Arteries have thick walls with muscle tissue. Veins have thinner walls and use valves to keep your blood flowing
What is the heart conduction pathway is made of what 4 elements?
This pathway is made up of 5 elements:
Sino-atrial (SA) node:
Atrio-ventricular (AV) node
Bundle of His
Purkinje fibers
What 2 components that make up normal human blood?
- plasma:
- water
- dissolved electrolytes
- plasma proteins
- Formed elements:
- red blood cells (erythrocytes)
- white blood cells (leukocytes)
- platelets (thrombocytes)
Blood pressure is determined by what 2 things?
- amount of blood the heart pumps (cardiac output)
- vascular resistance in the arteries (peripheral vascular resistance)
What is Frank Starling’s law and how it relates to cardiac tissue?
is based on the link between the initial length of myocardial fibers and the force generated by contraction
- The bigger the stretch the bigger the contraction
What are the three types of muscle cells and where can they be found throughout the body?
Skeletal (voluntary)- found throughout the body attached to tendons (how we move)
Smooth (involuntary)- Smooth muscle makes up your organs, blood vessels, digestive tract, skin and other areas
Cardiac- only in your heart and help your heart pump blodd
What what are the basic functions of the skeletal system (SPMMB)?
- shape/form
- protection
- movement
- mineral storage
- blood cell production
What is the function of cartilage and tendons in your skeletal system?
Cartilage- allows for two bones to rub smoothly against each other when a joint moves
Tendons - connect to Bones together and also allow for movement
What is a sprain ?
An injury where a ligament is overstretched or torn?
What are the two basic divisions of the skeleton system
Axial and appendicular
What is the function of the axial and appendicular skeletal system divisions?
Axial- provides the basic framework and protects vital organs
What are the three parts of the bone?
Compact bone, spongy bone, marrow
What is automaticity?
the ability of cardiac cells to spontaneously generate electrical impulses and contract without external stimulation from the nervous system
how the body determines blood pressure ?
- Cardio output: The amount of blood the heart pumps
- Artery size and elasticity: Narrower arteries make it harder for blood to move through, increasing blood pressure
- Baroreceptors: These mechanoreceptors in blood vessels near the heart detect the level of stretch on the vessel walls and send information about blood pressure and volume to the brain
What are the main functions of the circulatory system? (PBST)
- Promotes blood clotting and hemostasis
- Buffering system for acid-base balance
- serves as the medium for carrying substances throughout the body (Hormones, nutrients, etc)
- Transportation of blood cells
Homeostasis:
the process by which the body maintains a balance of its internal systems
Explain the heart conduction pathway :
- Sa node will initiate an impulse pre-determined by the brain and spreads through out the rest of atrium causing them to contract
- stimulus reaches the AV node which holds onto signal 1/2 second allowing atrium to finish contracting
- AV node releases signal to allow ventricles to contract
- after a brief rest period SA node starts cycle over again
What the normal composition of ambient air is made of ?
- Dominant gases: 78% Nitrogen (N2), 21% Oxygen (O2)
- remaining 1% : Trace gases like Argon (Ar), Carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor
What are things that can hinder normal ventilation?
- Respiratory fatigue
- Air way resistance: i.e. bronchitis or diseases that affect the airway (COPD, Covid 19, Pneumonia
- Indoor air quality
- Blood PH, O2 and CO2 levels
- Medical conditions
- Inhalation injuries
- Chest or back injuries
- Severe allergies
What is stroke volume and heart rate?
Stroke volume- the volume of blood pumped out of the heart’s left ventricle during each systolic cardiac contraction
Heart rate- the number of times the heart beats per minute, and is directly related to the workload being placed on the heart.
What can affect normal blood pressure?
Stress, emotions, physical activity
What are the 6 functions of the renal system (focusing on kidneys )?
- remove metabolic waste : by filtering blood
- water balance
- electrolyte balance (K, Cl, Na)
- acid base balance (bodies PH level)
- BP regulation (can signal CNS lower/higher)
- Red blood cell monitoring (kidneys monitor O2 levels in blood / if O2 drops kidneys release hormone to increase red blood cells)
What are the 6 functions of the renal system?
- remove metabolic waste : by filtering blood
- water balance in the
- electrolyte balance (K, Cl, Na)
- acid base balance (bodies PH level)
- BP regulation (can signal CNS lower/higher)
- Red blood cells (kidneys monitor O2 levels in blood / if O2 drops kidneys release hormone to increase red blood cells)
What is the relationship between tidal volume and respiratory rate ?
Tidal volume: Represents the volume of air inhaled or exhaled during a single breath.
Respiratory rate: Represents the number of breaths taken per minute
- directly related : when one increases the other increases as well
how do you calculate minute volume?
Minute Volume = Tidal Volume x Respiratory Rate.
What are different steps of the ventilation process?
Two steps: inspiration and expiration
-Inspiration:
Air enters the lungs when the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract. This increases the volume of the thoracic cavity, which decreases the pressure inside the lungs and creates a pressure gradient that pulls air in.
-Expiration:
Air leaves the lungs when the muscles used for inspiration relax.
Hypoxic and hypercapnic drives are?
both ways the respiratory control center responds to changes in oxygen and carbon dioxide levels by altering breathing patterns
Explain the Hypoxic drive and hypercapnic drive:
- Hypoxic drive:
A measure of how breathing changes when the concentration of oxygen in inhaled air decreases, while the concentration of carbon dioxide in the end-tidal space remains stable. In response to hypoxia, breathing becomes rapid and shallow, with a greater increase in respiratory rate than tidal volume.
- Hypercapnic drive:
A measure of how breathing changes when the concentration of carbon dioxide in inhaled air increases. In response to hypercapnia, breathing becomes deep and slow, with a greater increase in tidal volume than respiratory rate.
What makes up the two basic divisions of the digestive tract?
- Alimentary tract: Mouth to anus
Ingest, digest, absorb and eliminate
- accessory organs:
Liver, gallbladder, pancreas , some ductwork
Explain how the accessory organs help aid in digestion:
- liver produces bile which goes to the gallbladder for storage
- The pancreas makes digestive enzymes which end up in the small intestine
The lower GI tract consists of what parts and is responsible for what?
- small intestine and large intestine
- absorption & elimination
What two hormones do the females ovaries make?
Estrogen and progesterone
Discuss the normal process of egg fertilization and implantation
during reproduction:
- cycle last 24 to 35 days with an average of 28 days
- day 1 of cycle is bleeding (menstruation 🩸)
- day 14 : ovaries release an egg
- day 15 - 21 : (5-7 days) egg will travel through the fallopian tubes to the uterus
- If egg is fertilized then egg will implant on uteran lining
- if not, it is just discharged with lining 14 days after ovulation
What hormone does the testes produce for males?
Testosterone
what is the difference between Bradycardia and Tachycardia
Bradycardia = Slow heart rate
Tachycardia = Fast heart rate
Acrocyanosis:
bluish discoloration of the patient’s extremities
What are the average respiratory rates of Adults, Elderly, children, infants?
- Adults : 12-20 BPM
-Elderly: 20-22 BPM
- Children: 18-37 BPM
- Infants: 30-60 BPM
Which gas law is disrupted when a patient sustains a spinal cord injury resulting in paralysis to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles?
Boyles Law
What is the primary stimulus to breathe in human beings without pulmonary diseases?
Level of CO2 in the body
Explain the gas exchange that happens in the lungs:
- In the areola, there is a capillary that wraps around it.
- The blood entering the areola is low in O2 and High in CO2
(low O2 because it has entered the cells, high in CO2 because cells have created it making energy and released it into the blood)
- Air entering the lungs is High in O2 and low in CO2
- Through a process of diffusion, the O2 moves from the lungs into the blood and the CO2 leaves the blood and enters the lungs to be expelled (capillary and alveoli walls are thin)
how does the body use receptors to determine respiratory rate?
- Peripheral chemoreceptors:
Located in the carotid bodies at the bifurcation of the carotid arteries, primarily sensitive to changes in blood oxygen levels.
- Central chemoreceptors:
Situated within the brainstem, most sensitive to changes in carbon dioxide levels in the cerebrospinal fluid
What are the different organs/ systems that eliminate waste and how?
- Renal system:
Kidneys filter out the blood and metabolic waste
Bladder, ureters, and urethra which carry the liquid and filter out the good and dispose of the bad through pee
- Digestive tract: Small and large intestine absorb nutrients that eliminate the remaining waste.
what are the four receptors that are important in the endocrine system for the “Flight” response?
Alpha 1 and 2
Beta 1 and 2
The following organs make what Hormones?
Pineal- Melatonin
Pituitary - Growth hormone (aka Master gland
Whats the difference between the parasympathetic and nervous sympathetic system and what happens under each?
- Parasympathetic nervous system is know for “Rest and Digest”
under this vasodilation, BP lowers, breath rate slows, digestion occurs
- Sympathetic nervous system is know as “Flight or Flight”
Under sympathetic blood vessels constrict, BP Rate increases, digestion pauses
What do the following receptors of endocrine system do?
A1 - Controls blood vessels
(constrict and dilate)
A2-
B1- Increases Heart
(Increases Heart rate and contractability)
B2- Open lungs (Dilate the bronchial tubing)
What do each of the regions of the brain do?
Frontal lobe: Controls personality, emotions, higher thinking, problem solving, and voluntary movement
Temporal lobe: Processes hearing and other senses, and helps with language and reading
Parietal lobe: Involved with senses, attention, and language
Occipital lobe: Helps the eyes see, including recognition of shapes and colors
Cerebellum: Controls motor coordination and spatial navigation, and aids in cognitive functions such as attention, language, and fear memory
Brainstem: autonomic functions such as breathing, temperature regulation, and heart rate
Thalamus: Relays sensory and motor information to the cortex, and helps with consciousness, sleep, and alertness
what do each of the hemispheres of the brain control?
Left hemisphere: Controls speech and abstract thinking
Right hemisphere: Controls spatial thinking
What are the two components of adequate breathing?
Adequate rate and adequate tidal volume
What makes Cardiac muscle different from other types of muscle?
- Has Automaticity : Can generate its own electrical pulse
- Mix of striated and smooth muscle
- cardiac muscle cells branch and merge at junctions called intercalated disk ( branch like appearance ) which help to stimulate the cells simultaneously
- Doesnt require constant signaling or stimulus to operate
What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary muscle?
Voluntary muscles are those that you can consciously control (I.e. skeletal muscle)
involuntary muscles are those that are not under your control
( i.e. heart muscles)
Where is the dividing line between the upper and lower airways?
The trachea : point of division occurs at the epiglottis
How do pediatric airways differ from that of adults?
- Head: In the supine position, a young child’s head will cause a natural flexion of the neck due to its large size. This neck flexion can create a potential airway obstruction.
- tongue is proportionally larger in the mouth then adults
- Larynx: a child larynx is higher up than in an adult, creating a more anterior location
- Epiglottis: The adult epiglottis is flat and flexible, while a child’s is U-shaped, shorter and stiffer
- Vocal cords: The anterior attachment of a pediatric patient’s vocal cords is lower than the posterior attachment, which creates an upward slant, whereas in adults, the vocal cords are horizontal
- Trachea: The trachea is shorter in pediatric patients, which increases the likelihood of right mainstem intubation.
-Airway diameter: A child’s airway is narrowest at the cricoid ring.
-Residual lung capacity: Smaller lung capacity in pediatric patients means that a child can become hypoxic more quickly than an adult
What is the difference between ventilation and respiration?
Ventilation is the movement of air into the lungs
Respiration is the movement of gases from one area of the body into another
How can you tell if your patient has inadequate breathing
- rate issues
- irregularities in pattern
- inadequate depth
- use of accessory muscles
- nasal flaring
- seesaw breathing
- head bobbing
- abnormal noises
- tripod position
What is perfusion?
The movement of blood through tissues
Describe how oxygen gets from outside the body to your cells:
- lungs take in oxygen and then oxygen enters into your blood stream from the aveoli to the capillaries
- 97% of the o2 will enter the blood and hookup to the iron containing protein called “hemoglobin” in the red blood cell
- remaining 3% will be transported in solution (dissolved in the blood)
Describe how CO2 gets from your cells to the outside of your body?
- co2 is created from chemical reactions inside the cell
- 23% of co2 will bind to hemoglobin ( only bind when no o2 is around)
- 7% will dissolve in the blood
- remainder 70% of co2 gets changed and transported as a bicarbonate aka “bicarb”
What is the job of the nervous system?
sensory input, integration of data and motor output
What is the difference between the central and peripheral nervous systems?
-CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord (bodies control center) : it receives incoming sensory signals, interprets the signals, and dictates motor responses
-PNS: consists mainly of the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body. Sends information to brain from different parts of the body as well as carry out commands from brain to body
What is the Somatic Nervous System responsible for?
voluntary movement of skeletal muscles
What is the Autonomic Nervous System responsible for?
involuntary actions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration
Compare the endocrine system to the nervous system
endocrine system is: slower but effects last for longer.
(I.e. hormones)
Nervous system is faster but affects are shorter (I.e. adrenaline)
Where are these receptors found?
A1- Vascular smooth muscle
A2- brain and in the periphery
B1- Heart and Kidneys
B2- Smooth muscle
What happens to your patient when the skin is cut?
- Blood vessels to the wound constrict, reducing blood loss. Blood platelets gather at the site to form a clot.
- Once the clot has formed, the blood vessels dilate, allowing maximum blood flow to the site. This causes inflammation. White blood cells start cleaning the site
- New layers of collagen are laid at the site. Capillaries are formed to service the new skin tissue.
- Contraction occurs at the edges of the wound to reduce the size of the wound.
- Surface skin cells migrate from one side of the wound to the other, covering the wound with cells to form the new skin.
- depending on injury, can result in scar
What type of burns are there?
First-degree burns affect only the outer layer of the skin. They cause pain, redness, and swelling.
Second-degree burns affect both the outer and underlying layer of skin. They cause pain, redness, swelling, and blistering. They are also called partial thickness burns.
Third-degree burns affect the deep layers of skin. They are also called full thickness burns. They cause white or blackened, burned skin. The skin may be numb.
How does chronic high blood pressure destroy the kidneys?
- High blood pressure can constrict and narrow the blood vessels in your kidneys, which reduces blood flow and stops the kidneys from working well
- Extra fluid can raise BP more resulting in dangerous cycle leading to kidney failure
What happens to the patient after the kidneys are destroyed?
Uremia: body fills with extra water and waste products
- can lead to seizures, coma and death
What is missing during anaerobic metabolism?
Oxygen
What ingredients are needed for aerobic metabolism ?
oxygen and glucose/dextrose
What is the output of aerobic metabolism?
38 ATP (alot of energy)
What will happen if anaerobic metabolism continues for an extended period of time?
Buildup of lactic acid in the cell causing acidosis in the cell
What will happen if anaerobic metabolism continues for an extended period of time?
Buildup of lactic acid in the cell causing acidosis in the cell
What is the problem with anaerobic metabolism?
- Produces very little energy (2 ATP)
- Produces lactic acid
What must be present and functioning for profusion to work successfully?
The heart
The normal composition of ambient air is made of 21% oxygen. What problem occurs when that percentage drops?
10-19.5% : Increased breathing rate, accelerated heartbeat, impaired thinking and coordination
6-10% : Nausea, vomiting, lethargy, leading to unconsciousness
: < 6%Convulsions, cessation of breathing, cardiac arrest.
Explain the process for inhalation (Inspiration)
- When the lungs inhale, the diaphragm contracts and pulls downward
- At the same time, the muscles between the ribs contract and pull upward. This increases the size of the thoracic cavity and decreases the pressure inside
Explain the process for exhalation
- When the lungs exhale, the diaphragm relaxes
- the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases while the pressure within it increases
- As a result, the lungs contract and air is forced out.
Which of these processes inhalation or exhalation is an active process and why?
Inhalation because it involves muscle contraction of the diaphragm
What are some things that could hinder ventilation and why do they make it difficult to breathe in and out?
Respiratory diseases like COPD and Asthma
- COPD causes chronic inflammatory process that gradually narrows airways, making it hard to expel air from the lungs
- Asthma is a reversible condition that causes airway hyperresponsiveness like bronchoconstriction
Why is it important to maintain the integrity of the parietal and visceral pleura with regard to ventilation?
Pleura allows for the lung to expand during inhalation
Loss of integrity of pleura can causes lung to collapse
Define Tidal volume (Simple):
the amount of air you breath in and out during each breath
- Your nervous system has several sensors that measure different chemicals. How do these sensors determine when it is appropriate to take a breath?
Chemoreceptors: Monitor CO2, Oxygen, and PH levels in the blood
Lung receptors:
- irritant receptors: monitor irritants that can affect the lungs and can stimulate cough, bronchoconstriction, and ventilation rate
- Stretch receptors: Measure the size and volume of the lungs
- J Receptors: Located in the alveoli and are sensitive to increase in pressure in the capillaries (can trigger shallow ventilation )
Explain how Oxygen and carbon dioxide move through the body
Carbon dioxide:
- Produced from inside the cell and exits cell to bloodstream
- 23% of it will attach to Hemoglobin in the blood if available
- 7 % will dissoolve in blood
- 70% will become “Bicarb” and travel in the blood
Oxygen:
- Enter from the lungs into the capillaries (Bloodstream)
- 93% will attach to hemoglobin
- Remaining 3% will dissolve in blood
What if your patient was to lose blood how would that affect their ability to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide?
Ability to transfer would significantly be reduced because blood carries these gases
Loss of blood means less red blood cells containing hemoglobin for theses gases to bind too
What part of the lungs do oxygen and carbon dioxide interface with the bloodstream?
Capillaries that surround the aveoli in the lungs
What are red blood cells responsible for?
Carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide
What are white blood cells responsible for?
They help the body fight infection and other diseases.
What is plasma responsible for?
- Plasma carries water, salts, and enzymes.
- The main role of plasma is to take nutrients, hormones, and proteins to the parts of the body that need it and Cells also put their waste products into the plasma.
Knowing these functions (white, red blood cells and plasma) , how would your patient be affected by blood loss?
- Loss of blood = less WHITE cells which means the immune system is compromised and patient can get an infection
- loss of blood = less RED blood cells means less hemoglobin available to carry oxygen and CO2 in the body
- Loss of plasma = loss of body ability to get rid of waste and nutrients and loss of ability to clot
- loss of bodies ability to function and maintain homeostasis leading to Death
Define hydrostatic pressure:
Blood pressure on the walls which is generate by the contraction of the heart
What does hydrostatic pressure result in?
bodies ability to move fluids, contributes to blood pressure, and pain relief
Define plasma oncotic pressure
is the pressure exerted by proteins in the blood on the circulation
What might you find in a patient that had an increased level of plasma oncotic pressure?
Edema, Dehydration, change in blood pressure, seizures and intercranial pressure
What are the factors that affect the cardiac output of the heart?
heart rate, preload, afterload, and contractility
Your patient has a lack of blood returning to the heart due to blood loss following a traumatic event. How does this affect cardiac output?
Great enough loss of blood can results in decreased cardio output because
- less blood returning to heart
- lower blood pressure
- increased peripheral
vascular resistance
What two ways does the body use to compensate for a drop in blood pressure?
- Increased heart rate
- vasoconstriction
Your body contains sensors that help keep the blood pressure within a healthy range.
Explain where these sensors are found what they measure and how they cause a change in the blood pressure.
baroreceptors
- found in the carotid sinuses and aortic arch
What might you find in a patient suffering from excessive hydrostatic pressure?
- Edema in legs, hands, abdomen
- Shortness of breath, Weight gain, and pitting edema
What does the Right side and Left side of the heart pump to?
Right Side = From body to lungs
Left Side = From lungs to body
What are the different parts of the heart responsible for ?
- Four chambers, two atria and two ventricles, that receive and pump blood:
Right atrium:
Receives oxygen-poor blood from the body’s largest veins, the superior and inferior vena cava
Right ventricle:
Pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery
Left atrium:
Receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs through the pulmonary veins
Left ventricle:
Pumps oxygen-rich blood to the body through the aorta, the body’s largest artery
- The heart has valves that open and close to control the direction of blood flow:
Tricuspid valve:
Controls blood flow from R. Atrium to R. Ventricle
Mitral valve:
Opens to allow more blood flow from L. Atrium to L. Ventricle
Pulmonary valve:
Regulates blood flow from the right ventricle to the pulmonary arteries
Aortic valve:
allows oxygen rich blood to move from L. ventricle to Largest Artery’s aorta
Superior vena cava:
large vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the heart
Inferior vena cava:
large vein carries deoxygenated blood from the lower body back to the heart
Pericardium:
Sac-like structure that covers the heart and acts as a barrier
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Name the 3 receptors and what they do?
Alpha 1: vasoconstriction
Beta 1: increased heart rate and contractility
Beta 2: bronchodilation
