Module 2 Flashcards by Josh Franco

Basic functional unit of life

The Cell

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o aka body cells
o have two copies of the genome
(except mature RBC’s) and are said
to be diploid (2n)

Somatic cell

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o Aka sex cells (sperm and egg cells)
o have one copy of the genome and
are haploid (1n or n)

Germ cells

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o Give rise to differentiated cells and to other stem cells (self-renewal)
o Diploid

Stem cells

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Tight cell layers form linings that
protect, secrete, absorb, and excrete

Epithelium

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transmit information as electrochemical impulses that coordinate movement and also sense and respond to
environmental stimuli; neuroglia support and
nourish neurons

Nervous Neurons

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A variety of cell types
and surrounding materials protect, support, bind to cells, and fill spaces throughout the body; include cartilage, bone, blood, and fat

Connective tissues

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provide energy and contribute to cell structure

Carbohydrates

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form the contractile fibers, clot formation and enzymatic reaction

Proteins

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basis of some hormones, provide insulation, energy storage and formation of membranes

Lipids

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translate information from past generations to new cells that give its characteristics. They are the most important
macromolecules to the study of genetics

Nucleic Acids

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carry out the activities of life in the cell; divide the labor by partitioning off certain areas or serving specific functions

Organelles

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 The most prominent organelle of most cells
 Contains the DNA within the cell

Nucleus

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surrounds the nucleus

Nuclear envelope

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biochemicals can exit or enter the nucleus through them

Nuclear pores

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mechanical support; holds the nuclear pores in place

Nuclear lamina

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“little nucleus”; darkened area
inside the nucleus (when viewed under the
microscope); site of ribosome synthesis

Nucleolus

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the fluid in the nucleus

Nucleoplasm

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Remainder of the cell between the nucleus
and the cell membrane

Cytoplasm

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the aqueous component of the
cytoplasm of a cell, within which various
organelles and particles are suspended

Cytosol

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 Quality control center of the cell
 Winds from the nuclear envelope outward to
the plasma membrane, forming a vast tubular
network that transports molecules from one
part of a cell to another

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

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o Studded with ribosomes
o Starting point of protein synthesis

Rough ER

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o Fewer ribosomes
o Lipid synthesis

Smooth ER

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 lipid made, membrane bound, saclike
organelles
 pinch off from the tubular endings of the ER
to form sacs for transport of substances
within the cell

Vesicles

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 column of four to six interconnected flat, membrane-enclosed sacs

Golgi apparatus

What are the formulas and products for sugar synthesis

o Sugar + Lipid = Glycolipid o Sugar + Protein = Glycoprotein

Vesicles that bud from one cell and then travel to, merge with, and empty their contents into other cells (the opposite is true for endosomes)

Exosomes

 “suicide sac”  membrane- bound sacs that contain enzymes able to degrade bacteria, worn- out organelles and others such as cholesterol

Lysosomes

“eating self”- ability of the cell to dispose of its own remnants

Autophagy

 Sacs with single outer membrane, filled with enzymes  catalyze reaction that breakdown certain lipids and rare biochemical, synthesize bile acids used in fat digestion and detoxify compound that result from exposure to oxygen free radicals

Peroxisomes

 “Powerhouse of the Cell”  provide energy by breaking the chemical bonds that hold together the nutrient molecules in food

Mitochondrion

– source of energy of the cell

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

– hold the enzymes that catalyze the biochemical reactions that release energy

Cristae

 meshwork of protein rods and tubules that serves as the cell’s architecture, positioning organelles and providing the overall 3- dimensional shapes

Cytoskeleton

o Made up of tubulin o Cellular organization, communication between cells o form hairlike structures called cilia, that propels substances

Microtubules

o Made up of actin o narrower than microtubules o enable cells to withstand stretching and compression, and help anchor one cell to another.

Microfilaments

o composed of different types of proteins o have diameters intermediate between those of microtubules and microfilaments

Intermediate Filaments

 Completely surrounds the cell  It is a double layer (bilayer) of molecules called phospholipids  Monitors the movements of molecules in and out of the cell

Plasma Membrane

 The phosphate end of a phospholipid is attracted to water, and thus is __________

hydrophilic (“water loving”)

The other end, which consists of two chains of fatty acids, moves away from water, and is therefore

hydrophobic (“water fearing”)

are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer of biological membranes.

Proteins

what kind of transport does not require energy

Passive Membrane Transport

what kind of transport requires energy, usually in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Active Membrane Transport

A series of events called the _______ describes the sequence of activities as a cell prepares for and undergoes division.

cell cycle

 Cell continues the basic biochemical functions of life, while also replicating its DNA and some organelles.

Interphase

o cell resumes synthesis of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates o it is the period of the cell cycle that varies the most in duration among different cell types

G1 phase

– a cell can exit the cell cycle at G1 to enter a quiet phase

o synthesis of biochemicals for microtubule formation

G2 phase

o Synthesis phase o DNA replication

S phase

Each chromosome consists of two copies of the genome joined at an area called the

centromere

Microtubules form structures called centrioles that join with other proteins and are oriented at right angles to each other, forming paired, oblong structures called ___________

centrosomes

Microtubules form structures called __________ that join with other proteins and are oriented at right angles to each other, forming paired, oblong structures called centrosomes

centrioles

Long strands of chromosomal material in replicated chromosomes

chromatids

attached at a centromere

sister chromatids

 DNA coils tightly  Chromosomes condense  Microtubules assemble  Nuclear membrane breaks down  Nucleolus is no longer visible.

Prophase

What are the four stages of mitosis

 Prophase  Metaphase  Anaphase  Telophase

 Chromosomes attach to the spindle at their centromeres and align along the center of the cell, which is called the equator

Metaphase

 Centromeres part  Chromatid from each pair move to opposite ends of the cell.

Anaphase

 Mitotic spindle falls apart  Nucleoli and the membranes around the nuclei re-form at each end of the elongated cell

Telophase

microfilament band contracts like a drawstring, separating the newly formed cells. Apportions contents to daughter cells.

Cytokinesis

The cell cycle is tightly controlled and regulated at several ___________

checkpoints

temporarily pauses the cell cycle while special proteins repair damaged DNA.

DNA Damage Checkpoints

turns on as mitosis begins. During this checkpoint, proteins called survivins override signals telling the cell to die, so that mitosis (division) rather than apoptosis (death) occurs.

“Apoptosis checkpoint”

oversees construction of the spindle and the binding of chromosomes to it

“Spindle assembly checkpoint”

a cellular clock that limits the number of divisions. Its length determines how many more times mitosis will occur.

Telomere (chromosome tip)

Some cells (eggs, sperm, bone marrow cells, cancer cells ) have ______ that keeps chromosome tips long

telomerase

within cells ______ and ______ activate genes whose products carry out mitosis

kinases and cyclins

Disruption of the balance between cell division and cell death can lead to ____

cancer

a form of cell death associated with inflammation and damage, rather than an orderly, contained destruction

Necrosis

Gametes form from special cells, called germline cells, in a type of cell division called _________

meiosis

if gametes have only ONE of each type of chromosome (23 chromosomes) they are considered______

haploid

if gametes have TWO copies of each chromosome type (23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes) they are considered ______

diploid

- halves the chromosome number (46 divided by 2 = 23)

Meiosis I

mitotically divides each of the two cells, yielding four haploid cells.

Meiosis II

Chromosomes condense

Prophase I

homologous pairs of chromosomes line up next to one another in an event called _______

synapsis

Homologs exchange parts, in a process known as ______

crossing over

Homologs align down randomly at the center of the cell.

Metaphase I

the fate of a gene on one chromosome is not influenced by a gene on a different chromosome

independent assortment

Homologs separate

Anaphase I

Homologs move to opposite poles. Unlike in mitosis, the centromeres of each homolog in meiosis I remain together

Telophase I

During a second interphase, chromosomes unfold into thin threads. Proteins are manufactured, but DNA is not replicated a second time

Meiosis II

Chromosomes are again condensed and visible.

Prophase II

Replicated chromosomes align down the center of the cell.

Metaphase II

The centromeres part, and the newly formed chromosomes, each now in the unreplicated form, move to opposite poles.

Anaphase II

Nuclear envelopes form around the four nuclei, which then separate into individual cells.

Telophase II

may enable a population to survive an environmental challenge.

genetic diversity