Module 13: Social Psychology Flashcards
attribution theory
a framework used to explain the actions of others as the result of either dispositional and situational causes
When interpreting the actions of others, there are two basic attributions that can be made:
(1) dispositional/internal causes or (2) situational/external causes.
dispositional/internal causes
Whether another person’s behaviour is assumed to be a result of their personality traits and characteristics
situational/external causes
Whether another’s behaviour is assumed to be a result of environmental causes that are beyond one’s control
When assessing our own behavior, we are more likely to make
situational or external attributions
When assessing other people’s behaviour, we are more likely to make
internal or dispositional attributions
Kelley’s covariation model (1967) asserts that:
a single exposure to a person is insufficient to form accurate attributions, meaning multiple observations of behavior over time in a variety of different contexts are required to assess the source of another’s behavior.
Who identified three factors that need consideration when making internal/external attributions?
Kelley
Kelley’s three factors that need consideration when making internal or external attributions
consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
consistency
how a person acts in the same situation/context across time
distinctiveness
whether the person behaves similarilty across different situations/contexts
consensus
compares the extent to which an individual’s behavior resembles the behavior of others (high consensus) or varies from others (low consensus)
fundamental attribution error (FAE)
the tendency to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional (internal) causes and our own behavior to environmental (external) causes
impression formation
the process by which a person formulates either positive or negative opinions and feelings about another person or group
first impression
the tendency for our initial impression that we have about other persons to be rapid and enduring (seconds)
primary effect
the initial formation learned about another person has the strongest effect on impression formation - once an initial impression is formed, decreasing amounts of attention are given to subsequent information
When is the primary effect most pronounced?
when the initial information is negative
conformation bias
the tendency to pay attention to information consistent with one’s existing beliefs and ignore or discard information inconsistent with their beliefs (occurs when we are more likely to attend to and process facts or events that are consistent with our initial impression)
When you meet someone for the first time, how quickly do you form an impression of that person?`
within seconds to minutes of meeting
If your professor perceives you as a mature and responsible student, what would they most likely think if you came to class late?
The professor thinks that there must be some extenuating circumstances that caused your late arrival
self-fulfilling prophecy
when expected outcomes regarding the actions of others are more likely to occur because individuals unwittingly act in ways to bring about the behaviour
When people feel good about themselves and they go to a social event…
they are likely to engage in conversation with others, get positive attention from others, and meet new people who may want to be friends or even date them
You go to a party with friends and you feel confident, knowing you are looking good in the new clothes you bought. According to the self-fulfilling prophecy, what would occur?
You talk to new people, socialize, and enjoy the party.
If a person is confident and displaying positive characteristics and high esteem…
she will inadvertently act in ways that bring about the expected result (e.g., others will like her and want to talk to her)
When a person is convinced of a specific future outcome (i.e., a prophecy)…
the individual acts in ways that create the expected outcome.
false consensus effect
the tendency to “see one’s own behavioral choices and judgments as relatively common and appropriate to existing circumstances while viewing alternative responses as uncommon, deviant, or inappropriate”
Which of the following best explains Jennifer’s belief that everyone was failing the class (even though the exam average was 82)
false consensus effect
What explains why Jennifer is blaming the professor for her poor performance on the exam?
self-serving bias
What explains why the professor concludes that Jennifer lacks the skills needed for success and lacks motivation?
fundamental attribution error
Once we form an opinion about someone, which of the following explains why we attend to information that is consistent with our impressions and ignore information that is not consistent with our beliefs?
confirmation bias
People from Japan are more likely to demonstrate primacy effects in impression formation than people from the U.S. T/F?
False
Based on the descriptions provided, which person is more likely to be perceived positively?
A. Scott A. is a lazy, boring, and unreliable person, who is also kind, compassionate, and intelligent.
B. Scott B. is an intelligent, kind, and compassionate person; he can sometimes be boring, lazy and unreliable.
B.
With regard to impression formation, even if your initial impression is negative, it can be easily changed if subsequent exposures are positive.
False
social norms
prescribed behaviors that vary across contexts, cultures, and time (as the situation changes, so does the expected response)
If a student from your college cheered for the opposing team, that would be…
violating social norms
In Western cultures, customs are _____
individualistic, so the focus is on individual gains over the betterment of the group
Eastern cultures are ______
collectivistic societies, where the benefit of the group supersedes that of the individual
Examples of collective societies
Japan, China
social scripts
learned behaviors that are expected across a variety of situations
What was Soloman Asch interested in?
empirically testing how the presence of others directly affects conformity
conformity
the extent to which individuals modify their behavior to be consistent with the behavior of others in the group
groupthink
When high values of conformity and consistency in a group a highly valued, to the exclusion of opposing information and ideas
According to Janis’ original theory of groupthink, there are three basic components that contribute to poor decision making:
overestimating the group (an illusion of invulnerability and a belief in the inherent morality of the group)
closed-mindedness (collective rationalization and stereotyped views of an out-group)
pressure for uniformity (direct pressure on dissenters, self-censorship, illusions of unanimity, and self-appointed mindguards).
overestimating the group
an illusion of invulnerability and a belief in the inherent morality of the group
close-mindedness
collective rationalization and stereotyped views of an out-group
out-group
the group that a person does not belong to, members of the out-group are considered to be highly homogeneous
pressure for uniformity
direct pressure on dissenters, self-censorship, illusions of unanimity, and self-appointed mindguards
Examples of groupthink
- lack of preparation for the attack on Pearl Harbor
- decision to launch the space shuttle Challenger
Collective rationalization
Minimize and/or disregard the warning of others
(They don’t know what they are talking about – don’t waste your time)
Belief in inherent morality
Belief that the group is looking out for the greater good
(We are making the world a better place and know what we are doing)
Stereotyped views
Hold negative views of out-groups and have high in-group favoritism
(They are not good people and we are better than them)
Direct pressure on dissenters
Group members are pressured to conform and not express diverging ideas/opinions (We all agree and no one cares what you think, so keep quiet)
Self-censorship
The illusion of a united front makes members think that their ideas are incorrect/wrong.
(Everyone agrees, so there is no point in sharing my ideas – I am probably wrong anyway)
Illusion of unanimity
The group appears unanimous because dissenting views are not considered. (Everyone agrees so there is nothing to discuss)
Self-appointed ‘mindguards’
Some group members want to protect the leader and the group by enforcing group cohesiveness and quashing dissenting ideas.
(The group agrees and no one want to hear your nonsense, so stay quiet)
According to the Asch’s research findings, ______________ percent of participants complied with an incorrect answer at least once.
75
Which person described below is most likely to conform his/her responses to match others?
Seth is a student who doesn’t have many friends and is self-conscious.
A person from which of the following countries would be most likely to conform to the incorrect responses of others?
China
Let’s do it—we never fail. Which type of groupthink is this?
illusion of invulnerability
Groupthink is most prevalent when…
the need for group cohesiveness and consistency are strongly enforced and any diverging ideas are quashed and excluded from the decision-making process.
Nuremberg Code
Ethical guidelines that were designed to protect the rights of participants in research, which was a byproduct of the release of gruesome details of experimentation done on innocent men, women, and children during the reign of Nazi Germany
obedience to authority
When people get perceived as authority figures are capable of getting high levels of cooperation in tasks designed to directly harm others or cause severe pain without the use of coercion
Would the numerous experiments Milgram conducted a half-century ago meet current ethical guidelines for human research?
No
What % of participants continued until the end in Milgram’s experiment?
65% (final shock was 450V)
As the level of shock increased, so did the…
appearance of anxious behaviors and extreme discomfort; they were fidgeting and appeared restless in their seats (some laughed manically)
As the distance decreased in Milgram’s experiment…
so did obedience
Level of compliance was also high based on the
appearance and behaviors of the experimenter. The experimenter represented an authority figure based on both his outward appearance (e.g., wearing a white lab coat) and other subtle cues.
The predictions of local psychiatrists and psychologists on the percentage of people who will administer the final shock of 450 volts closely matched the actual results from Milgram’s studies. T/F
False
Milgram’s Hierarchy of Standardized Verbal Prompts
1: Please continue
2: The experiment requires that you continue
3: It is absolutely essential that you continue
4: You have no other choice, you must go on
When Milgram moved his experiment from the campus of Yale University to a warehouse in downtown Bridgeport, Connecticut, what were his findings?
Conformity dropped to a little less than 50%
Which of the following best represents the events in at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq?
The power of the situation can be so great that good people do bad things.
Philip Zimbardo and Stanley Milgram grew up in the same area in the Bronx and were classmates in high school.
True
Zimbardo’s TED Talk asserts that all people can become evil
True
Who conducted the Stanford Prison Experiment?
Dr. Philip G. Zimbardo
The Stanford Prison Experiment is a chilling reminder of how
people can become so caught up in a social role that they engage in some unspeakable acts of cruelty
Prison in Abu Ghraib received worldwide attention when
pictures were released showing the prisoners forced to engage in horrific acts while U.S. service men and women stood by giving a “thumbs-up” or simply smiling as if they were posing for some crowning achievement
Zimbardo’s famous experiment helped others understand how
good people can do horrible things when put in the appropriate situation.
Psychology of Evil is also referred to as the
Lucifer Effect
Zimbardo asserts that the line between good and evil is
not fixed and can become blurred.
What represents the events in at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq?
The power of the situation can be so great that good people do bad things.
According to Zimbardo, what factors must be considered when investigating heinous acts?
The system involved, the persons involved, the situation
In the Stanford Prison Experiment, how long did it take for the first prisoner to have a complete emotional collapse?
48 hours
Participants in the Stanford Prison Experiment were informed that the local police would come to “arrest” them.
False
Prison experiment process
- 14 day prison simulation
- 24 healthy participants, randomly assigned roles (9 prisons, 9 guards, 3 alternates)
- prisoners had no idea that police would show up to home
- booking process: fingerprinted, stripped
- referred to as number only
- guards were not allowed to physically harm or deny them of food/water
How long did prison experiment last?
6 days (when Zimbardo showed his graduate student)
cognitive dissonance
When attitudes and behaviours are inconsistent, a state of unease and distress is felt, which the individual is then motivated to reduce
Some of the ways people can reduce cognitive dissonance include
(1) changing the attitude
(2) changing the behavior
(3) distorting attitude(s)
(4) distorting perceived behavior(s).
Cognitive dissonance theory was developed by
Leon Festinger (he was involved disintegrated, and former members did not disavow their beliefs, which nevertheless contrasted with reality)
Josef is an active animal rights advocate and vegan. After feeling hungry from his run, he eats a bowl of his mom’s beef stew but tells no one - what is this an example of, and why?
cognitive dissonance
decision to eat a bowl of beef stew is both (1) intentional and (2) conflicts with the cognitive component of his veganism. In this case, his behavior conflicts with the cognitive component of his attitude. (If he enjoyed the stew, his affective component would also be in conflict with the cognitive component of his attitude.)
Which of the following can reduce cognitive dissonance?
Change your attitude
Change your behavior
If we consider cognitive dissonance as a mis-alignment of attitudinal components, the only way to reduce it is to change our belief (the cognitive component of our attitude) or to change our behavior.
Clive has given all his worldly possessions to the cult he joined. He no longer has any contact with his family and has no friends other than cult members. The cult leader told members when the world would end and how aliens would save them. When the world did not end, Clive remained in the cult and became more convinced that the leader was a prophet. What best explains Clive’s behavior?
Cognitive dissonance theory
Clive’s actions (abandoning his family and giving away his possessions) are in conflict with the belief that the cult leader could be mistaken. Cognitive dissonance results from this, and it is far easier to dismiss the idea that the leader is wrong than it is to change your entire way of life.
prejudice
learned, negative attitudes or opinions directed toward a certain group (gender, ethnicity, religion, country of origin, skin color, sexual preference, body size, and a host of other characteristics - learned from parents, peers, first-hand experience, and vicarious conditioning)
Difference between prejudice and discrimination
prejudice relates to attitudes while discrimination is related to behavior
discrimination
Adverse behaviours directed towards which one holds negative and prejudicial beliefs
The reason for high degrees of discrimination and hate between minorities is based on the concept of a _______
scapegoat
scapegoat
Refers to a tendency to blame less powerful person or group for one’s problems - often leads to feelings of prejudice, extreme dislike, and malice towards the person or group being blamed (people can feel more empowered when they exert power over others who have less power than themselves)
__________ is another explanation for hatred across minorities, based on the idea that there are few desirable jobs available, so the competition for these limited resources creates conflict.
Realistic conflict theory
The Robbers Cave experiments supported
realistic conflict theory and the notion that to decrease discrimination, it is vital for people of equal status to work together toward a common goal
mutual independence
Refers to the need for individuals or groups to work together toward a common goal
Elaine Walster
blind date test
Walster found what during blind date experiment
100% of those on a blind date chose to go on a second date based solely on physical attractiveness
Traditionally speaking (prior to the advent of digital devices), people liked others based on a number of factors, such as ______ and ______
similarity and proximity
Similarity refers to
the fact that we tend to like others who share similar ideologies and interests to us
Proximity
more likely to meet and befriend those who live close to us (people in class, dorm)
For students taking classes about a mutually interesting topic, _________ can influence liking
both proximity and similarity
mere exposure effect
The more time and experience that we have to someone is associated with an increased liking of that person
Which of the following would reduce discrimination?
Being of equal status
Working toward a common goal
(Being of equal status makes it less likely that one of the groups can be effectively used as a scapegoat, while working toward a common goal yields mutual interdependence)
stereotype
Assigns + or - attributes based on a shared characteristic
prejudice
negative attitudes about persons grouped together based on shared characteristics
discrimination
negative or unjust behaviours towards persons who share similar characteristics to dislike a group.
The ______________ effect dictates that the more occasions that you interact with someone, the more you will like them.
mere exposure
People who are considered attractive are also assumed to…
possess positive personality traits
prosocial behaviours
helping others without the expectation of anything in return (volunteering their time and resources because they want to help; not mandatory)
reciprocal altruism
engaging in what appears to be prosocial behaviours with the expectation of getting something in return
Reporting acts of altruism are not perceived as bragging if…
the audience was previously unaware of the information
Is seeking admiration and the need to appear generous altruistic?
No - then the purpose of engaging in prosocial behaviors is for personal gain, such as being perceived in a positive light; not pure of heart
Women and altruism
Women can develop more intuitive responses.
Women who are sex-typed (primarily endorse feminine gender roles) are the most likely to act altruistically automatically and intuitively than all men and women whose sex-type is incongruent with their gender.
Men and altruism
Unaffected by the manipulation, so they continued to deliberate before helping, and were generally less likely to offer help
Three common forms of gaining compliance are
- foot-in-the-door technique
- door-in-the-face technique
- lowballing
foot in the door
- the initial request is small, so people willingly participate
- you make another request, but this one is large and not that appealing
- many will comply because they begin to perceive themselves as committed
door in the face relies on
reciprocity norm - requester compromised, target accepted
Door-in-the-face
the initial request is large and met with rejection, so a smaller request is made and then accepted
Percentage of compliance for door-in-the-face method compared to smaller request only
50% door in the face, vs. 16.7% small request only
______ is a technique most commonly associated with car salespeople
Lowballing - added fees and taxes
lowballing
Initial offer seems great, and you are committed to the purchase, but then the deal gets worse
overestimating the group
an illusion of invulnerability and a belief in the inherent morality of the group
