Chapter 12: Personality Flashcards
What is personality?
An enduring set of internally based characteristics that produce uniqueness and consistency in the expressions of a person’s thoughts and behaviors, along with an explanation to account for these characteristics
What are traits?
Internally based characteristics that make up one’s personality (operate on a continuum: not aggressive to highly aggressive)
Three distinct elements of personality:
uniqueness, consistency, and explanation
uniqueness
personality traits are unique to each person; even among monozygotic twins
Personality accounts for the internal operations producing the unique and consistent expression of an individual’s thoughts and behavior.
processes of personality
Personality describes how the behavior of the individual is consistent over time and across situations.
consistency of behaviour
Personality explains how the expression of each individual’s thoughts and behavior is different.
uniqueness of individual
consistency
how an individual behaves overtime in similar situations
The individual most closely associated with the psychodynamic perspective is
Sigmund Freud
Freud published two articles stating that _____ was the cause of hysteria and other neuroses
early childhood sexual trauma
True or false: Freud was a psychologist.
False; medical doctor
Who made the iceberg model?
Freud
Three regions of the iceberg:
conscious, preconscious, unconscious
conscious mind
All mental activities that the person is aware of and able to freely access (tip of the iceberg)
preconscious mind
A level of consciousness that is not in the forefront of one’s thought; however, information can be retrieved and brought to conscious awareness.
unconscious mind
the largest and most influential part of the mind, according to Freud; houses any thoughts or impulses that are considered too threatening in one’s conscious mind
According to Freud, to understand personality it is necessary to
2222expose and gain access to the content of the unconscious mind.
What are the tools Freud explored to access the unconscious? (3).
hypnosis, free association, dream analysis
free association
A technique of psychoanalysis in which a client is encouraged to freely share thoughts, words, and anything else that comes to mind in order to gain insight into their unconscious thoughts, behaviours and motivations.
Two components of dream analysis:
manifest content and latent content
manifest content
In dream analysis, the actual content that the dreamer remembers - without any interpretation.
latent content
The content of dreams that is expressions of the unconscious mind and a reflection of one’s true feelings, needs and desires.
id
a core component of personality in the unconscious, present at birth, that is driven by sexual and aggressive impulses.
What is the driving force of id?
pleasure principle
pleasure principle
The driving force of id, where the focus is on the fulfillment of all sexual (Eros) and aggressive impulses (Thanatos).
Freud believed that ___ was the primary driver of personality.
id
Eros
unconscious sexual impulses
Thanatos
Death impulse manifested as unrestrained aggression.
According to Freud, what takes care of basic human needs (e..g, eating, drinking)
id
ego
The component of personality that mediates between the id and superego and ultimately decides the course of action.
Within Freud’s model of the mind the ______ are structural components operating within the three levels of consciousness, each with its own specified function. (3)
id, ego, superego
____ is the component of the mind that can subdue the id’s sexual and aggressive impulses to wait for the “right time and right place.”
ego
The ego operates on the ____.
reality principle
reality principle
The world in which the ego operates where impulses from the unconscious and id are rejected in their natural form and are expressed in socially acceptable ways.
superego
One’s moral compass of what is right and wrong; this is learned from parents, teachers, religious leaders.
The sense of morality characteristic of the superego is regulated by the _____ and _____.
ego ideal and conscience
ego ideal
creates a sense of pride when the individual exhibits thoughts and behaviors consistent with a personal moral code (e.g., telling the truth and obeying societal conventions)
conscience
creates a sense of shame, disapproval, anxiety, or guilt when the individual exhibits thoughts and behaviors that violate the personal moral code (e.g., lying and stealing)
The operation of an emotionally healthy personality is a reflection of a _____ expression of the id, ego, and superego
balanced
Freud hypothesized that criminal behaviour was the result of a
strong id and a weak superego
reality anxiety
a form of anxiety that serves as a warning sign for real danger
a car drifting into your lane is ____ anxiety
reality anxiety
moral anxiety
a form of anxiety that serves to notify the superego that the ego is considering violation of one’s moral code
You want to cheat on a test… what kind of anxiety?
moral anxiety
neurotic anxiety
A form of anxiety that warns the ego of threatening expressions of id impulses at conscious awareness.
You want to scream out loud while sitting in a boring meeting… what kind of anxiety?
neurotic anxiety
To mask feelings of anxiety and disguise the source of the tension, as well as to keep them from being expressed (e.g., screaming out loud), individuals unconsciously employ a variety of…
defense mechanisms
Forcing distressing or unacceptable memories, thoughts, and feelings into the unconscious: what kind of defense mechanism?
repression
A victim of sexual assault during childhood unable to recall the details in adulthood: what kind of defense mechanism?
repression
Unacceptable thoughts and desires in the unconscious are expressed as their opposite in consciousness: what kind of defense mechanism?
reaction formation
Speaking out against homosexual behavioral while fantasizing about having sex with same-sex individuals: what kind of defense mechanism?
reaction formation
Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, impulses, and motives to others: what kind of defense mechanism?
projection
Easing one’s guilt about cheating on a test by believing others are also cheating: what kind of defense mechanism?
projection
Reacting to a threatening situation with a response characteristic of an earlier stage of development: what kind of defense mechanism?
regression
“Acting like a baby” by throwing a temper tantrum when co-workers do not agree with you: what kind of defense mechanism?
regression
Transforming inappropriate impulses and motives into socially acceptable and even valuable expressions: what kind of defense mechanism?
sublimation
Developing a career as a scientist studying deviant sexual behavior to satisfy one’s own atypical sexual desires: what kind of defense mechanism?
sublimation
A conscious refusal to perceive and believe painful facts or situations exist: what kind of defense mechanism?
denial
After a series of job losses and failed relationships, an alcoholic will not admit to having a drinking problem: what kind of defense mechanism?
denial
Creating an acceptable and local explanation to replace a true but threating cause of behavior: what kind of defense mechanism?
rationalization
Instead of admitting to being a thief, an employee justifies stealing supplies from work as compensation for what is perceived as an unfair salary: what kind of defense mechanism?
rationalization
Shifting the expression of an unwanted impulse from a threating person to a less threatening one: what kind of defense mechanism?
displacement
Instead of expressing his anger at his boss for humiliating him in a meeting, an office manager yells at his child when arriving home: what kind of defense mechanism?
displacement
An effective response to a buildup of anxiety would be to
take direct action to resolve the conflict and restore a sense of psychic balance.
An ineffective response would be to continue to
use the defense mechanism to avoid conflict, thereby increasing levels of anxiety
Who are the two most influential people in the development of the humanistic perspectives?
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
_______ considered the motivational core of personality to be the desire for individuals to seek a state of self-actualization—the tendency to strive for self-improvement and self-enhancement to ultimately achieve one’s fullest potential
Abraham Maslow
Maslow proposed a ______
hierarchy of needs
The five levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (bottom to top)
- physiological
- safety
- love/belonging
- esteem
- self-actualization
physiological needs
food, sleep, water
safety needs
secure and stable environment (of body, employment, resources, health, property)
love/belonging needs
build healthy relationships with friends, family, and possibly a romantic partner
esteem needs
characterized by the desire to have the respect of others and a sense of self-respect (leadership role in organization, running for office)
self-actualization needs
the desire for individuals to reach to one’s fullest potential, which incorporates an unending drive for self-improvement
Who purported that the core element of an individual’s personality is the self-concept?
Carl Rogers
self-concept
how someone perceives his or her unique set of characteristics, skills, qualities, and abilities
self-esteem
how someone perceives his or her unique set of characteristics, skills, qualities, and abilities
_____ was a psychotherapist who assessed the current state of being (actual self) as well as the ideal level that one would like to achieve (ideal self)
Carl Rogers
actual self
form of self that person is currently at
ideal self
form of self that person strives to become
As the discrepancy between ___ and ___ increase, self-esteem and self-worth _______
actual self and ideal self; decrease
conditional positive regard
when love and acceptance is contingent upon their actions and behaviours
Parents may show approval when their teenage daughter conforms to their wishes for her to go to medical school instead of her own desire to study social work: what is this an example of?
conditional postive regard
unconditional positive regard
based on inherent goodness of people and the need for unwavering love and acceptance from others; displaying an attitude of acceptance and respect for an individual, no matter what that person says or does (except harmful or destructive behaviours)
Roger’s self-theory can be extended to psychotherapy… how?
believed that the expression of unconditional positive regard by the therapist toward the client would help to create the therapeutic relationship necessary for the person to begin to make the decisions required for a more healthy sense of self
According to Albert Bandura, a core element of personality is the
self-system
Who came up with the self-system?
Albert Bandura
self-system
set of cognitions that people use to observe, evaluate, and regulate their behavior in different situations
self-efficacy
the belief about one’s ability to successfully perform in a given situation; individual will expect past performance to be consistent
Important process in the development of an individual’s self-system is:
- observing and evaluating the consequences of others’ behaviors
- consider their ability to satisfactorily perform various behaviors
Student who has done well in freshman and sophomore year is more likely to have…
higher levels of self-efficacy regarding her future academic performance than a student who has been on academic probation.
For Julian Rotter, the core element of personality is based on one’s ________
locus of control
locus of control
a personality construct that represents the degree to which individuals believe that they are in control of their outcomes and experiences
individuals with an external locus of control have
general expectation that they lack control over the events in their lives
individuals with an internal locus of control have
they control what happens in their current life as well as their future
An external locus of control also seems to be a contributing factor to feelings of
learned helplessness
learned helplessness
sense of hopelessness in which individuals believe their ability to prevent unpleasant events in life is outside of their control
people with an internal locus of control are more likely to…
- to take control of their health.
- to study more (and get higher grades).
- to cope better with life’s stresses.
people with an external locus of control are more likely…
*to consume more alcohol and have alcoholism.
* to exhibit Internet addiction.
* to exhibit learned helplessness.
Is too much internal locus of control bad?
Yes - can create unrealistic expectations and feel disappointed when they are not acheived
The evolutionary perspective uses evolutionary theory to account for differences in personality (Buss, 2008) because these differences are adaptive responses to the two fundamental challenges of evolution
survival and reproductive success
personality characteristics associated with survival include (2)
- conscientiousness (makes individuals more likely to engage in health-promoting behaviors and avoid risks)
- optimism (makes individuals more likely to have fewer symptoms and quicker recovery when dealing with medical concerns )
Two personality characteristics negatively associated with longevity are:
- hostile type A personality
- neuroticism
those personality characteristics associated with _____ —those for whom reproduction is possible but rates of reproductive success are low
functionally infertile individuals (FII)
Personality characteristics correlating with females classified as high FII
harm avoidance, which results in less frequent sexual intercourse
- low cooperativeness, creating difficulties with potential sexual partners
- higher scores on measures of depression and anxiety, resulting in negative emotions being associated with sexual activity
Personality characteristics associated with males classified as low FII
- self-confidence, extraversion, and social assertiveness
- more likely to approach sexual partners
Hans J. Eysenck (1990) proposed a trait theory of personality called the
three-factor theory
Who proposed the three-factor theory?
Hans J. Eysenck
Three-factor theory consists of three trait dimensions:
extraversion-introversion, neuroticism-emotional stability, and psychoticism-impulse control
extraverted
tendency to like being around others, enjoying excitement, as well as being optimistic and adventurous (lower brain activity in ARAS)
introverted
being socially distant, introspective, emotionally controlled, calculating, and orderly (higher brain activity in ARAS)
neuroticism
tendency to be touchy, restless, moody, and anxious (increased levels of activity in SNS)
psychoticism
tendency to be impulsive, cold, aggressive, unconcerned about the rights and welfare of others, and antisocial
Eysenck proposed that variation in the expression of the aggressive-impulsive nature of psychoticism was linked to
high levels of testosterone and low levels of monoamine oxidase, or MAO
behavioural observation
recording actual behaviors as they occur, such as recording the distance shy and non-shy individuals stand away from others
self-monitoring techniques
individuals recording the frequency they engage in particular behaviors (e.g., checking one’s cell phone during class) or have certain feelings (e.g., expressions of test anxiety during exams)
thought sampling techniques
individuals to record the nature and frequency of the thoughts they have in certain situations, such as having difficulties when meeting new people at a party (e.g., “I just know people are going to think I’m not interesting.”).
Advantage of observational assessment techniques is that
they make it possible to assess a variety of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in a wide range of situations
A disadvantage of observational assessment is that
- the same response may mean different things to different people, such as a lack of eye contact being interpreted as fear versus disinterest
- we must trust individuals using the self-report techniques to be honest when recording their own behaviors, which can come into doubt when the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are of a negative/socially undesirable nature
projective techniques
asking an individual to respond to ambiguous test items that do not appear to have any clear or specific meaning; psychoanalytically based on Freud’s belief in the unconscious. The ambiguous stimuli may be an inkblot (Rorschach Inkblot test) or a drawing of an ambiguous situation (TAT). There are no correct answers, and reliability estimates of projective techniques are low (which means that there is no validity). When responding to an inkblot, a participant may give an elaborate answer; however, different clinicians often come to very different conclusions about responses because scoring is vague and highly subjective.
use of projective techniques remains highly criticized because
there is a lack of reliability - but still used
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
individual is shown a series of 17 cards containing an ambiguous photograph and asked to complete a story for each photograph
