Chapter 4: Development Flashcards
period of the zygote
time of conception to two weeks later; blastocyst implants into uterine lining, period of prenatal development mostly driven by genetic factors (rapid cell division)
blastocyst
hollowed out ball of cells that implants into the uterine wall, ultimately to become the developing organism and its support system
ectopic pregnancy
pregnancy that results from the implantation of the blastocyst into the fallopian tubes instead of the uterine wall - woman and zygote at risk
Why are ectopic pregnancies risky?
- uterus can expand (as zygote grows) and contract (to expel fetus)
- fallopian tubes cannot
- pregnancy is terminated to avoid death due to ruptured fallopian tube
What is the defining feature of the period of the zygote?
Rapid cell division
monozygotic
identical twins - one egg fertilized by one sperm and divided into two separate cells with identical DNA (100% shared genetics, same sex)
dizygotic twins
fraternal twins - woman’s ovaries will release more than one egg at a time; two eggs are fertilized by one sperm each (unique genetic makeup)
Many teratogens have been identified, including …
the use of tobacco or alcohol during pregnancy, the use of over-the-counter or prescription medications, and the occurrence of specific viruses or illnesses that can be transmitted from pregnant women to their developing infants
Effects of teratogens depend on…
- dose (how much exposure)
- timing (stage of gestation)
- cumulative effects (more than one teratogen)
Is maternal mental illness a teratogen?
No.
Challenge associated with determining whether an environmental agent acts as a teratogen…
it is unethical to randomly assign pregnant women to an experimental condition (e.g., exposure to teratogens) that might negatively impact their developing infant
When do teratogens exert most of their negative effects?
during the period of the embryo
Teratogens exert seemingly less influence during the period of the zygote, as…
the process of cellular division is largely constrained by biology
Another reason why teratogens exert their biggest effects early in pregnancy—between the second and eighth weeks of gestation—is because….
many women may not realize they are pregnant until after this important period of prenatal development has passed
Infants who have been exposed to alcohol during pregnancy may be identified as having…
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
A recent meta-analysis estimates that approximately __% of women across the globe use alcohol during their pregnancies.
10
Is the dose and timing of alcohol use definitively linked to infant and child outcomes?
No, abstaining is recommended to stay prudent.
Effects of alcohol on developing infant:
- Damage to internal organs (resulting in heart or kidney problems as well as issues with vision or hearing)
- Altered physical characteristics (reduced head size, below-average height
- Smooth patch of skin between the nose and the upper lip
- Cognitive impairments (problems with hyperactivity and inattention, reduced intelligence, and challenges in school)
sleeper effects
issues experienced by infants with FASD that may not be identified until later (e.g., cognitive defects associated with FASD until preschool, such as visual-motor integration and child behaviour problems)
Seemingly for the first time, a child experiences difficulty concentrating in class, potentially as a result of prenatal exposure to alcohol. This is an example of a:
sleeper effect
Four major stages of cognitive development:
- sensorimotor period
- preoperational period
- concrete operational period
- formal operational period (may not be achieved by some)
Who came up with the four stages of cognitive development?
Jean Piaget
Can children skip a stage in cognitive development?
No! (according to Piaget)
Piaget’s theory describes cognitive development in ways that are easily ______ and ______.
accessible and observable
Does recent research conform Piaget’s findings?
Yes.
Children must progress through each stage in order: T/F?
True
No one reaches the highest level of cognitive functioning. T/F?
False; everybody does, but some later than others (adolescence).
First stage of cognitive development?
sensorimotor period
Sensorimotor period is a period that is marked by…
learning that occurs through a child’s sensory and motor interactions with the physical environment - learn about the world through their actions on it
What ages does sensorimotor period occur from?
Birth to age 2
In the first substage of the sensorimotor period, from birth to ________, children learn from the world using the _________.
1 month of age; reflexes they have available to them from birth
In the second substage, from ________, infants learn about the world by __________.
1 to 4 months of age; engaging in primary circular reactions
Primary circular reactions + example
In second substage of sensorimotor development (from 1 to 4 months), infants learn about the world by repeatedly engaging in actions on their own body.
- infant might routinely suck on different parts of her hand, ultimately learning that certain parts (such as her fingers) are easier to suck on than others (such as her palm)
In the third substage of the sensorimotor period, from _____ to ____ months of age, infant behaviors begin to _______.
4 to 8 months of age; move outward, focusing to a greater extent on items outside of their own bodies (secondary circular reactions).
secondary circular reactions
In Piaget’s third substage of sensorimotor development (from 4 to 8 months), infants learn about the world by repeatedly engaging in actions outside their own body
Infants might enjoy repeatedly dropping toys off the side of their high chairs - what is this an example of?
secondary circular reactions
object permanence - when does it exist?
an understanding that objects and individuals continue to exist even if they cannot be seen, a development that occurs at around 8 months of age
- at the age of 9 months, infants begin to get OP
When is object permanence acheived?
9 months - during the fourth substage
An infant drops a Cheerio off her high chair and looks to find it - what is this an example of?
object permanence
In the fourth substage of the sensorimotor period, from ___ to ___ months of age, infants…
8 to 12; combine secondary circular reactions so that they can make a sequence of events come to pass.
- children can find a toy hidden under a cloth; must move cloth and then grab toy (two motor tasks)
A-not-B task/error
infants with object permanence succeed at finding an object hidden at one location, but they experience difficulty shifting their attention when objects are first hidden at one location and then moved to another
In the fifth substage of the sensorimotor period, from ___ to ___ months of age, children engage in —
12 to 18; tertiary circular reactions
tertiary circular reactions
In Piaget’s fifth substage of the sensorimotor development (12 to 18 months), infants learn about the world through their activities as “little scientists” – they actively explore the world using different combinations of items to see how these changes affect their observed outcomes.
Bang on different objects with their hands or wooden spoons to hear the various sounds that result - what is this an example of
tertiary circular reactions
During the sixth and final substage from ___ to ___ months of age, children have the beginnings of ______
18 to 24; mental representation
mental representation
In Piaget’s sixth and final substage of sensorimotor development (18 to 24 months of age), infants REMEMBER AND REENACT situations and events that happened previously without any ongoing perceptual supports.
preoperational period + what is it marked by?
The second stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget, lasting from ages 2 to 7. This stage is marked by a child’s increasing ability to use symbols and engage in logical thinking.
- animism, egocentrism, conservation
The preoperational period is divided into two substage:
- preconceptual thinking (ages 2 to 4 years)
- intuitive thinking (4 to 7 years)
symbolic thinking (what is it and what is it marked by?)
the ability to use symbols (e.g., language) to stand for other things (e.g., complex feelings, ideas)
animism
preschooler believes that stuffed animals have feelings, sun or moon is following them
egocentrism + examples
difficulty of children adopting the perspective of another individual, as seen in children aged 2 to 7 in Piaget’s developmental model
- child might choose a birthday present for her friend that the child herself would want
conservation tasks
children do not yet realize that certain physical qualities of an object remain unchanged despite changes to its physical appearance.
- children may not yet understand that a ball of clay rolled into a long snake has the same amount of clay as when it was made into a ball
concrete operational period
third stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget, which lasts from 7 to 11 years of age, marked by increased cognitive ability reasoning about concrete events
- they can evaluate and make sense of what they can physically see in the world around them, but thinking about hypothetical situations is difficult
Do children achieve success on conservation tasks? How?
Yes; understand three transformative principles…
What are the three transformative principles understood by children during the concrete operational period?
- identity
- compensation
- inversion
identity
children realize that the transformations they observe do not alter the medium in any meaningful way (e.g., the ball of clay changed shapes but it is the same amount of clay)
compensation
children recognize that the imposed changes cancel each other out (e.g., understand that the liquid used in conservation tasks takes up more vertical space in a tall skinny glass than a short fat one)
inversion
the process imposed in conservation tasks is easily reversible (e.g., coins spaced out can be put close together again)
How does Piaget differ from Vygotsky
Piaget: stages of cognitive development with little regard for societal influences on cognitive growth and change over time
Vygotsky: sociocultural theory; cognitive development as a continuous process that was intimately linked to the context in which children were raised
Vygotsky believed that one could not, in essence…
understand cognitive development without considering the environment in which children were raised
Parents role in cognitive development (according to Vygotsky)
scaffold: cognitive support offered by a teacher to a learner to assist the learner to acquire new skills or knowledge. Such support is withdrawn when the learner can perform the skill on his/her own.
A grandmother runs behind her grandson’s bike, holding onto the seat until he gains his balance. She then lets go and watches as he rides down the street. What is this an example of?
scaffolding
Scaffolds need to know…
about where her support or help would be most useful; assistance below (the child’s current capabilities is unnecessary, as children can succeed at that level without assistance; assistance much above a child’s current level of competency would be too advanced, resulting in possible failure on the task in question… assistance should be provided just beyond the child’s current ability level)
zone of proximal development (+ who came up with it?)
distance between what a child can accomplish on their own and what and what they can accomplish with some assistance (Vygotsky)
_______ discussed the importance of psychological tools, or the utility of tools in shaping the way individuals structure their thinking
Vygotsky
According to Vygotsky, what is the most important psychological tool?
language
egocentric speech
talking to themselves out loud to help them solve difficult problems—this sort of talk is internalized over time and becomes silent inner speech; usually seen in children
attachment
the patterned behavior and emotional bond one forms with primary caregivers in infancy, which is associated with later behavior in adult romantic relationships
Konrad Lorenz
found that goslings followed the first large moving object they saw after hatching, and showed a preference for this object - even over their biological mother (IMPRINTING)
imprinting (+ who came up with it?)
young organisms may be biologically predisposed to form relationships with the adults of their species (Lorenz)
Harry Harlow
- infant monkeys spent most of their time on the cloth mother, only visiting the wire mother temporarily when the infant needed something to eat
- when the infant monkey was stressed, he ran to the cloth mother—and even attempted to threaten the frightening machine when in her presence
- infant monkeys are born with an internal need to cling to a soft body and that this drive is just as powerful as other biological drives, like hunger
According to the video of Harlow’s research, how much time did infant monkeys generally spend on their cloth mothers?
17-18 hours a day
John Bowlby
believed that mammals develop attachment bonds as a means of promoting their survival and that without them, infants would perish due to a lack of food or protection; infants develop some attachment to their primary caregivers
Mary Ainsworth developed the _____
Strange Situation paradigm; allowed researchers to systematically explore the attachment relationships infants develop with their primary caregivers + factors that contribute to the emergence of attachment relationships early in life
Attachment theory classifications by Ainsworth consists of:
- securely attached
- insecure-resistant
- insecure avoidant
- disorganized attachment
securely attached
in attachment theory, an attachment style of infants and adults characterized by emotional closeness and a healthy level of independence and exploration (walked or crawled to parent upon return, stopped crying when picked up)
insecure-resistant
in attachment theory, an attachment style of infants characterized by being clingy after the parent returns; may be born out of inconsistent parental responsiveness (e.g., holding onto mother’s skirt when she leaves)
insecure-avoidant
In attachment theory, an attachment style of infants characterized by avoidance of a primary caregiver upon reunion after separation; may be born of out parental disengagement with the infant (e.g., minimal stranger anxiety and distress when parent leaves)
disorganized attachment
In attachment theory, an attachment style of infants characterized by fear and dissociation in wanting to both approach and avoid an attachment figure; may be born out of parent abuse (e.g., moving away from mother with outstretched arms)
You’re at a family picnic with your infant son. You want to grab some more food, so you ask your uncle – someone with whom your infant has almost no experience – to hold your son while you get some food. Your son seems reluctant to be handed over, clinging to your shorts and starting to cry. Which of the following attachment styles best describes your son’s behavior?
insecure-resistant
Kohlberg’s primary vignette was called _____
Heinz dilemma
Heinz dilemma
in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, a vignette (short story) presenting a moral dilemma to assess moral reasoning.
Two sides to the Heinz dilemma:
Steal the drugs to heal wife? Or avoid stealing the drugs, a choice that would result in wife’s death?
Kohlberg developed a system of morality that included three primary stages of moral reasoning:
- pre-conventional morality
- conventional morality
- post-conventional morality
pre-conventional morality
In Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the first stage of morality in which children think of morality in terms of punishments and rewards.
- bad things results in punishment, and good things result in rewards
- 1: Heinz should not steal because he might go to jail
- 2: Heinz should steal because his wife might reciprocate in future
conventional morality
In Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the second stage of morality in which a child places value on social conventions, social order, and being viewed as “good” or “bad” by others.
- maintain the status quo as “good boy” or “good girl”
- 1: should not steal because of the need to maintain social laws and order
- 2: should steal to be seen as good person by wife
post-conventional morality
In Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the final stage of morality in which someone bases moral decisions on abstract/internal principles instead of societal expectations or the judgment of others (e.g., human rights or justice)
Why do teenagers experience difficulty assessing risks and controlling their behavior?
prefrontal cortex has not developed yet
As prefrontal cortex develops…
teenagers may be more susceptible to the perceived positive consequences associated with risk relative to adults and less sensitive to potential negative outcome
Is it possible to change how adolescents view risky activities?
It is difficult - should try to change adolescents’ opportunities for engaging in risky behavior (e.g., cheaper alcohol, make condoms more accessible)
Positive social contexts are associated with ______ by juveniles with ______.
lower rate of offending; better impulse control
James Marcia proposed four different identity statuses that vary based on exploration and commitment:
- foreclosed identity
- identity diffusion
- psychosocial moratorium
- identity acheivement
low exploration and low commitment
identity diffusion
- have not made any decisions or commitments about their identities
high exploration and low commitment
psychosocial moratorium
- exploring various options, perhaps by enrolling in college
low exploration and high commitment
foreclosed identity
- prematurely decided who they are, likely conforming to the ideas of or expectations set by others
high exploration and high commitment
identity acheivement
- completed their identity crisis and have committed to who they believe themselves to be
A young woman decides to pursue a career as a plumber because her father was a plumber and that is what he always wanted her to be
foreclosed
A young man cannot make any firm decisions about his future unsure of whether he would like to pursue a career in advertising¸ become a medical doctor or own a flower shop
identity diffusion
A young woman has thoughtfully considered various career options and has decided to work towards becoming a physicist who works for NASA
achieved
A young woman is in college and plans to take a gap year before pursuing graduate school in a field of interest that she has not yet identified
psychosocial moratorium
Mary Main identified what… (+ how?) (3)
three attachment styles in adults that parallel those observed in infants using Adult Attachment Interview
- secure or autonomous
- anxious or preoccupied
- avoidant or dismissive
secure or autonomous attached
- comfortable and confident in their ability to become emotionally close to others
- balance of closeness and independence in their relationships as a result
(securely attached infants)
anxious or preoccupied
- feel uncomfortable with independence and strive for constant intimacy and closeness in their intimate relationships
- report that they are often unable to find romantic partners willing to react similarly
(insecure-resistant infants)
dismissive or avoidant
- perfectly comfortable without close emotional relationships
- tend to believe that close relationships will compromise their independence, and they often avoid such relationships altogether
(avoidant attachment infants)
After your friend describes her blind dates in full detail, she chastises you for convincing her to try online dating in the first place. She declares that she will never date again because it’s not worth the heartbreak and dating makes her feel uncomfortable. What attachment style best characterizes your friend?
dismissive or avoidant
Those who report being in poor-quality marriages are ____ happy overall relative to ______
less; unmarried people
Those in happy marriages, however, report _______ relative to unmarried individuals
increased health and lower rates of suicide
Is marriage universally beneficial to health?
No - cardio, endocrine and immune systems impacted
Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development: birth to 2 years
trust vs. mistrust
Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development: early childhood 2 years to 4 years
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development: preschool years: 4 to 5 years
Initiative vs. Guilt
Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development: school age: 5 to 12 years
Industry vs. Inferiority
Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development: adolescence: 13 to 19 years
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development: early adulthood: 20 to 39 years
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development: middle adulthood: 40 to 64 years
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development: maturity: 65+ years
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
trust vs. mistrust
Infants learn to trust their caretakers and the world around them.
- if not reached: mistrust
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Children become confident in their ability to make decisions and survive in the world.
- if not reached: believe they are unable to make positive decisions
initiative vs. guilt
Children develop a sense of purpose and initiative.
- if not reached: view themselves as nuisance to others
industry vs. inferiority
Children feel confident in their abilities to achieve goals.
- if not reached: may not feel like they can reach their potential
identity vs. role confusion
Adolescents develop a true sense of self, identity, and purpose.
- if not reached: struggle to recognize where they fit in society
intimacy vs. isolation
Adolescents develop a true sense of self, identity and purpose
- if not reached: isolated and lonely
generativity vs. stagnation
Adults establish a legacy in the world and feel a sense of belonging to the “big picture.”
- if not reached: stuck and unproductive
ego integrity vs. despair
Adults see themselves as having lived a successful life and will develop integrity and contentment.
- if not reached: belief that life was unproductive, feel despair and hopelessness
A teenager adheres to a religion that promotes conformity.
identity vs. role confusion
A newborn is in foster care and receives inconsistent care.
trust vs. mistrust
A mother does not let her toddler dig in the dirt for worms.
autonomy vs. doubt and shame
A man has children but does not take care of them.
generativity vs. stagnation
longitudinal research designs
can provide unique information about developmental processes (whether growth over time is characterized by stability or change) as well as contribute to our understanding of how experiences in infancy and early childhood may have lasting influences on behavior as individuals age.
cross-sectional research
in which children of various ages are tested in the same study, is useful for examining age-related change, but not development within the same person over time.
