Moduel 6 Flashcards
Review contemporary theories of biological aging. (any test questions on this will be based on the general theory categories provided in the slides)
The Hayflick Limit
- A theoretical proposal that each species is subject to a genetically programmed time limit after which cells no longer have any capacity to replicate themselves accurately
- Cells divide a specific number of times and then stop. Human embryo cells divide about 50 times Galapagos tortoise 100 times chickens 25 times.
Telomere
-The string of repetitive DNA at the tip of each chromosome in the body that appears to serve as a kind of time keeping mechanism.
The length of telomeres is reduced each time a cell divides.
-There is a crucial minimum telomere length below a certain threshold disease or death comes fairly quickly.
Telomerase
- Telomerase is an enzyme that used to restore telomeres to the ends of the chromosomes ensuring that the cells can continue to replicate themselves.
- Most adults cells lack the capacity to produce high levels of telomerase.
Cellular Damage
- another variable is the cells ability to repair brakes in DNA. The cumulation of unrepaired brakes results in a loss of cellular function as the organism ages.
- Cross-linking is the formation of undesired bonds between proteins or fats this happens more in older adults. Ex: Collagen and elastin form process linkages which results in molecules not assuming the correct shape for proper function leading to effects such as wrinkling and arterial rigidity.
- free radicals are molecules or Adams that possess an unpaired electrons. These are a result of exposure to certain substances in food sunlight x-rays and air pollution. They occur more frequently in older adults because of age related deterioration of the mitochondria. These radicals enter into many potentially harmful chemical reactions resulting in a repairable cellular damage that accumulates with age. Ex: Oxygen free radicals can damage cell membranes therefore reducing the cells protection against toxins and carcinogens
Stem Cells
- stem cells are undifferentiated cells that are capable of self renewal and differentiation into specialized adult cells. They will divide an unlimited number of times.
- Some stem cells may display and each dependent decrease in number. They can become damaged overtime. Damage to aged stem cells may result from accumulation of irreversible modifications including genetic alterations mitochondrial DNA damage and telomere shortening. These modifications contribute to a decline in stem cell function where damaged adults cells are not repaired or replaced quickly enough which leaves the body more vulnerable to disease processes and break down.
Role of Epigemtits in Stem Cell Aging
- genotype determines the maximum lifespan of different species. The variation in longevity between individuals seems to be affected by the accumulation over time of Eppy genetic errors that compromise adults Denis cell functions. These changes affect DNA functions or how DNA expresses itself. Epigenetic‘s can be thought of as changes in gene expression caused by factors that do not change the actual DNA make up.
- It is now possible to predict a persons age based on their epigenetic status
Describe how the brain changes in late adulthood.
Four main changes occur in the brain during the adult years.
- A reduction of brain weight
- a loss of gray matter
- a decline in the density of dendrites. This pruning seems to be a decrease in useful Dendritic connections. Singers with higher education show less atrophy of the cerebral cortex. Dendritic loss also result in a gradual slowing of synaptic speed. However reaction time for money every day tasks increase. This is likely due to synaptic plasticity which is the redundancy in the nervous system that ensures that it is nearly always possible for nerve impulse to move from one neuron to another or from a neuron to another type of cell like a muscle cell.
- slower synaptic transmission speed.
Describe the common types of sensory changes that occur in late adulthood.
Vision
-Blood flow to I decreases which results in enlarged Blindspot. Adults have difficulty seeing at night and responding to rapid changes in brightness. Increase in I diseases such as cataracts (cloudy lens 20%) glaucoma (optic nerve damage 6%)and macular degeneration (Loss of central vision 20%) (stars based on adults over 65.
Hearing
- Auditory problems more likely in men. Due to different exposure to noise.
- Loss of ability to hear high frequency sounds. After age 60 a given sound Hass to be 1 to 2 dB louder each year.
- Develop difficulties with war discrimination sounds. They also have problems hearing under noisy conditions.
- tonight is a persistent ringing in the ears peaks in early old age and decreases somewhat there after. 14 to 42% of seniors experience this.
- Older adults secrete more earwax, the bones of the middle ear become calcified and less elastic, cochlear membranes become less flexible and the nerve pathways show degeneration
Taste Smell Touch
- Ability to taste does not decline. However there is less secretion of saliva and flavours seem blander.
- The sense of smell deteriorates. After 60 smelling deteriorates rapidly. The sensitivity loss is greater in men than women.
- skin is less responsive to cold and heat. The extremities are the first to decline in sensitivity. Seniors are less able to benefit from the potential comforts associated with physical stimuli such as a warm bath or blanket. Older adults have an increased risk of hypothermia because their skin doesn’t signal effectively when it is exposed to low temperatures. They therefore do not put on a jacket or have a blanket
Differentiate Alzheimer’s disease from other dementias.
Dementia is rare before late adult hood becoming steadily more common with advancing age. The most common cause of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease. It is difficult to diagnose definitively and its causes are not fully understood. Neurofibrillary tangles are far more likely to be present in the brain of individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and in those people with other types of dementia
- Dementia is a neurological disorder involving problems with memory and thinking that affect an individual’s emotional social and physical functioning
- Alzheimer’s disease is a very severe form of dementia the cause of which is unknown.
- beginning stages are subtle memory difficulties repetitive conversations and disorientation in unfamiliar settings. Later memories for recent events begin to go and then long-term memories such as family members.
- Left to their own devices they may consume as many as three or four complete meals without realizing how much they have eaten. They can have problems controlling their own emotions and processing information about others emotions.
Diagnosing and treating
- Can only be definitely diagnosed after a person has died. This is because Nuro fibrillation tangles are seen. They clog connections between neurons and are surrounded by deposits of plaque.
- Diagnosing is made difficult by the fact that 80% of seniors complain of memory problems.
- Depression in those with Alzheimer’s can be as high as 40%
- A few drugs appear to slow down the process such as Doneprezil
Hereditary and Alzheimer’s
- Genetic factors are important in some but not all cases. A gene variant on chromosome nine controls proteins linked to Alzheimer’s. When errors in the production of the protein occur dendrites and axons become tangled.
- Age of onset, severity, life expectancy and behavioural effects is highly variable even with family history.
Other types of Dementia
- Vascular dementia is a form of dementia caused by one or more strokes.
- Dementia can be caused by depression metabolic disturbances drug intoxication Parkinson’s disease multiple flows to the head alcohol abuse etc.
Describe what the research suggests about depression among older adults.
The prevalence of depression appears to decline in Canadians over age 65. Rates increase for seniors living in an institutional setting or who also suffer from serious medical conditions or dementia. Enhancement of lifestyle and social supports counselling and psychotherapy and antidepressant medication are recommended treatments.
Diagnosis
- Signs of depression may be dismissed as grumpiness due to ageism
- Seniors who ask for help might focus more on their physical symptoms than emotional concerns.
- Also important to distinguish between depressed mood and full-fledged clinical depression.
- Geriatric dysthymia is chronic depressed mood in older adults. This typically does not progressed to clinical depression.
Risk Factors
- In adequate social support in adequate income emotional loss such as the death of a spouse family or friends, nagging health problems, inadequate education level
- Strongest predictor appears to be health status. The more disabling conditions older adults have the more depressive symptoms they have.
- Depressed women outnumber men 2 to 1 among seniors.
Suicide
- Since the 80s suicide rates for seniors has declined. Except for those 85 and older. Elderly man or six times as likely to commit suicide.
- Older women attempt suicide more but the men complete the act more.
Prevention and Intervention
- Treatment includes enhancement of lifestyle and social supports counselling psychotherapy antidepressant medication. Exercise is effective at reducing major depressive symptoms.
- Social involvement such as interaction with children pet therapy and interaction with the religion also help
Identify how older and younger adults differ in memory function.
Although not inevitable singers experience difficulties in a variety of mental processes which appear to reflect a general slowing of the nervous system and perhaps a loss of working memory capacity.
Short Term Memory
- Slight loss in working memory
- No decline with age in immediate recall of a normal seven digit telephone number. When the length of the number increases to 10 digits decline with age becomes evident beginning at about age 16. With even a brief delay between seeing the number and dialling it decline occcurs earlier.
- Older adults perform more poorly on tasks involving retrospective memory which is recalling some thing that has happened recently. Older adults are better than younger on prospective memory which is tasks in a natural setting such as their home, these involve remembering future things such as taking meds paying a bill going to an appointment.
Strategy Learning
- A study involved linking a word to a picture example castle and a picture of a bike you would link I thinking of someone biking in front of the castle
- The learning process simply takes longer for older adults. Longer to create the mental image and longer to link that image up with the word. When allowed to take more time to associate each picture in Word older adults performed similarly to younger
Everyday Memory
- Perhaps older or adults are simply unmotivated to memorize lists of unrelated words given to them by researchers in the lab.
- However older adults Still consistently perform worse on every day tasks such as remembering the main points of a newspaper story recalling movies conversations grocery list whether they did something such as turn off the stove remembering where they heard something.
- Older adults good at using strategies such as written reminders to compensate
Preliminary Explanations
- Age related memory decline is associated with changes in the ratio of gray to white matter in the brain.
- Reduction of volume of the hippocampus is associated with memory defects.
- A very large portion of age decline in memory can be accounted for by slower reaction times. So physiological changes in neurons and the accompanying loss of nerve conductive speed may be the root cause of these changes in Memory.
Describe what the research says about Erikson’s stage of ego integrity versus despair.
Ego integrity versus despair phase in which older adults must achieve a sense of satisfaction with their lives
Ego integrity is the feeling that one’s life has been worthwhile
- Involves coming to terms with death and excepting it’s immanence
- Failure to achieve ego integrity would result in feelings of hopelessness and despair because there would be too little time to make changes before death.
- Research does not indicate that the development of ego integrity is necessary to adjustment in old age
- Reminiscence is thinking about the past is a necessary and healthy part of achieving ego integrity.
- Today developmentalists would say the purpose is better mental health.
- reminiscence is also the foundation of life review and evaluated process in which elders make judgements about past behaviors. A negative life from review filled with regrets can lead to depression
- Continuing generativity has positive benefits but there needs to be someone on the receiving end or it’s no more meaningful than unrequited love
Characterize the main ideas of activity theory, disengagement theory, and continuity theory.
Activity theory is the idea that it is normal and healthy for older adults to try to remain as active as possible for as long as possible.
-Active older adults report slightly greater satisfaction with themselves are healthiest and have highest morale.
Disengagement theory is the theory that it is normal and healthy for older adults to scale down their social lives into separate themselves from others to a certain degree.
- Ageing has three aspects shrinking of life space: as people age they interact with fewer and fewer people. Increased individuality: in the roles and relationships that remain less governed by rules. Acceptance of these life changes: the healthy older adult actively disengages from roles and relationships turning in word.
- This disengagement might not be necessary since some level of social involvement is a sign of higher moral and lower levels of depression.
Continuity theory is the theory that older adults adapt lifelong interest in activities to the limitations imposed on them by physical ageing
-If they like to gardening before they might limit that passion to a small section of potted plants.
Identify the components of so called “successful” aging (see table 18.1)
Health. good health must be maintained through middle and late adulthood.
Mental activity. engaging and cognitively stimulating activities and hobbies helps older adults retain mental abilities.
Social engagement. remaining socially active is critical social contacts that involve helping others are especially important.
Productivity. volunteer activities can help by engaging retired adults in productive pursuits.
Life satisfaction. older adults must learn how to adjust expectations such that life satisfaction remains high
Identify the significance of Intimate partnerships, family relationships and friendships for older adults.
Marital satisfaction is higher in late I don’t ears. Marriage is based more on loyalty familiarity and mutual investment in the relationship. Companion love.
- Egalitarian relationships where share decision making and husband shared the housework had increased likelihood of being happy and had a low level of conflict
- The largest source of support for disabled seniors is the spouse not children or friends.
- 76% of divorced men and 55% of women over 65 engage in another union. Following the death of a spouse 31% of men remarry versus only 13% of women probably due to lack of availability of partners.
- married adults have higher life satisfaction better health and lower rates of institutionalization these benefits are greater for men.
Identify what factors contribute to the decision to retire.
Age
-Average age is 65 in Canada. This dropped to 61 in 2000s but it’s creeping back up.
Health
-Poor health provides a strong push towards retirement. Poor health lowers the average age by 1 to 3 years
Family Considerations
-Those who are still supporting minor children retire later. Men and women who bear children very late those who acquire a second and younger family in a second marriage and those rearing grandchildren are likely to continue work until children leave home.
Financial Support -those who anticipate receiving pension support or have personal savings to draw on retire earlier. In general working class adults retire earlier than middle-class and upper class adults often as a result of ill health and social norms. Many poor and working-class adults work well past retirement age to support their income
Work Characteristics
-More non-unionized and self-employed people expect to work beyond 65. People who are highly committed to work they enjoy retire later. Self-employed seniors tend to be better educated and work and jobs that are intellectually challenging. People in challenging and interesting jobs are likely to postpone retirement until they are pushed by Elle Health or inducement of some extra financial inducement.
Sex Differences
-On average women retire about 1 1/2 years before men. One factor that tends to keep women in the labour force is the learner of higher earnings that will augment future CPP benefits. This is especially tempting to woman who took time off to raise children. However women are still likely to receive less money from pensions because on average their earnings are lower.
Describe how retirement affects the lives of older adults.
Income
-sources of income include government pensions such as old age security and CPP, ourRSP’s or other assets and earnings from continued work. You will need between 60% and 80% of your pre-retirement earnings to maintain your standard of living in retirement.
Poverty
- over the past decades poverty rates among the elderly have declined. This might be due to significant improvements in work pensions and improvements in CPP.
- unattached older adults are more likely to be poor than their peers who live in families. Of these women are more likely to be poor than men 31% versus 20%.
Health Attitudes and Emotions
- Health does not change for better or worse because of retirement. The causal sequence is nearly always that the individual retired because of poor health.
- Retirement can have a positive impact on overall life satisfaction.
- Those who respond poorly to retirement are those with the least control over their decision
- Grumpy negative young people tend to be grumpy negative old people and satisfied young adults find satisfaction in retirement
Geographic Mobility
-only 30% of Canadian seniors moved within a five year period of retirement.
If they did move they did so because their house was too big or too small, they or a spouse retired, they wanted to be near children and grandchildren, a health decline, or wanted access to recreation.
-70% of seniors lived in Canadian urban centres with a population of 50,000 or more.
-Amenity move is a post retirement move away from kin to a location that has some desirable features such as year-round warm weather
-Snowbirds are seniors that spend the winter months in sunnier areas in the summer months at home near their families.
-Compensatory (kinship) migration is a move to a location near family or friends that happens when an elder requires frequent help because of a disability or a disease
-Institutional migration is a move to an institution such as a nursing home that is necessitated by a disability
Define and differentiate between clinical death, brain death, and social death.
Clinical death is a period during which vital signs are absent but resuscitation is still possible.
Brain death is irreversible absence of brain function. No electrical activity in the brain.
Social death is the point at which family members and medical personnel treat the deceased person as a corpse. Close the eyes or sign a death certificate.
Compare how hospital and hospice palliative care differ with respect to their effects on terminally ill persons.
2/3 of adults in Canada die in hospitals. Rather than providing curative treatment hospice palliative care emphasizes patient and family control of the dying process. It is a holistic approach that focusses on the relief of suffering and improvement of the quality of living and dying.
Hospital Care
-2/3 of Canadians die in hospitals. Older adults more prominent. People with terminal illnesses. And women.
Hospice Care
- A holistic Approach to care for the terminally ill that emphasizes individual and family control of the process of dying
- Dying with dignity is more likely if the person remains at home or in a home like setting.
- emphasizes that death should be viewed as normal the patient and family should be encouraged to prepare for death in the family should be involved in patient care as much as possible control over patient care should be in hands of the patient and family Care should be aimed at satisfying the needs of the person and their family medical care should be primary palliative care (A form of care that seeks to prevent relieve or soothe the patient’s symptoms rather than cured of their disease or disorders)
Caregiver Support
-caring for a dying loved one induces a grief response both in anticipation and following the death of their loved one. For some this can involve serious psychological disorders such as depression PTSD anxiety or substance abuse.
Describe the characteristics of children’s and adolescents’ ideas about death.
Until about age 6 or seven children do not understand that death is permanent and inevitable and involves loss of function. This is rooted in a lack of understanding of life. Once they start school they comprehend death as a biological event in which the heart ceases to be in the lungs stop breathing. Being exposed to a character that dies such as Bambi or the lion king can also speed up the understanding of death.
Teens understand the physical aspects of death much better than children do but they sometimes have distorted ideas about it especially in regard to their own mortality.
- This contributes to suicide teams who except suicide claim to understand that death is final but many tell researchers that the purpose of the suicide behaviour was to achieve a temporary escape from a stressful personal problem. Some even think death is a pleasurable experience.
- Experiencing the death of someone close may lead an adolescent to re-examine their idea about death and see the inevitability of it
