Moduel 2.2 Flashcards
What is a Theory
- A theory is a proposed explanation [hypothesis] for a phenomenon
- A scientific theory is a hypothesis that has been tested and confirmed by experimentation
- Theories that are plausible and/or have lots of evidence supporting them become generally accepted by the scientific community.
ex. Think of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, or Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity.
When do Theories become broadly accepted?
- when they are logical, have been rigorously tested and are consistent with the available evidence.
- the theories that most consistently explain the existing evidence become most accepted (theory of evolution to explain how we came about)
Evaluating a Theory
- A good theory stands up to people trying to disprove it. It is supported by evidence. A bad theory eventually fails in the face of evidence.
- the theory is useful for explaining many aspects of a phenomenon, but shouldn’t be expected to explain everything under all conditions.
- even the “best” theories are still being subjected to testing and questioning by the scientific community.
4 Components of a Theory
- A theory should be testable
- A theory should be consistent with existing evidence
- A theory should be concise and straightforward
- A theory should make sense (have internal consistency)
Biological Theories
Biological theories that account for human development are based on the functioning of the brain, on genetic factors, the functioning of the immune system, and the effects of time and ageing on the biological system.
Includes Evolutionary Theories
-state that human behaviour evolved over time as an adaptation to the environment, are also included.
The Mendelian Law of Inheritance
-describes how dominant and recessive traits combine to give us our expressed traits.
-Mendelian inheritance accounts for many of our physical and biological traits.
-Non-Mendilian Traits:
•These are traits that are influenced by more complex genetic factors than simple recessive/dominant interactions, such as when a trait is determined by the expression of multiple genes
Epigenetics
-describes nongenetic factors that influence which genes express themselves and how they express themselves
Ex: Environmental factors may influence genes to activate in some people, while in other people those same genes remain dormant.
Biochemical Factors
Neurotransmitters
- are chemicals involved in the transfer or modulation of nerve impulses from one cell to another.
- play an important role in emotional regulation and cognitive function.
- Neurotransmitter changes are often correlated with certain types of mental illness.
Hormonal Factors
- may contribute to certain physiologically based behaviours
- When hormones deviate from “normal” values, it can affect the functioning of an individual, even impacting their emotions, cognition and behaviour.
The 3 sets of Psychological Theories
- Psychoanalytic Theories (Freud, Erikson)
- Learning Theories (Pavolv, Skinner)
- Cognitive Theories (Piaget, Bandura)
Psychoanalytic Theorists Believe What
- believe that data for understanding a person comes from within that person, by observing their relationships, and knowledge of the impact on the person of social units, norms and laws.
- Data from unconscious processes, early development and the past are used to understand present behaviours.
- Sigmund Freud & Erik Erikson
Theory of Personality
Freud Theory:
There are three psychic structures in the personality:
•Id: Represents instinctual drives and energies that each person is born with (positive and negative).
•Superego: Includes the store of prohibitions that deter the person from acting on elemental or Id-induced drives. The concerns of the Superego are gained through interaction with the social environment and reflect the perceived values and norms of family, culture and society.
•Ego: is the rational manager and functions to maintain a reasonable equilibrium.
Anxiety: is viewed as the result of unresolved conflict between personality components. It is the primary motivation for behaviour.
The conscious-unconscious continuum
Freud Theory:
•Conscious (current awareness or easily remembered)
•Preconscious (remembered with help)
•Unconscious (not remembered, recognized and difficult to bring to awareness)
Psychosocial Theory of Personality Development
Erik Erikson Theory:
- explains step by step the unfolding of the emotional development and social characteristics during encounters with the environment.
- Each phase has specific developmental tasks associated with it.
- Psychosocial Crisis and it’s Virtue
- Trust vs. mistrust (hope)
- Autonomy vs. shame/doubt (will)
- Initiative vs. guilt (purpose)
- Industry vs. inferiority (competency)
- Edo Identity vs. role confusion (fidelity)
- Intimacy vs. isolation (love)
- Generativity v. stagnation (Care)
- Ego Integrity vs. Dispair (Wisdom)
Behavioural Theorists Think What?
- focus on isolated units or patterns of behaviour. They view the organism as a self-maintaining mechanism and focus on physiologic processes and identifiable aspects of behaviour.
- Ivan Pavlov & B.F. Skinner
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlow Theory:
- An unconditioned (new) stimulus is presented with a known stimulus… the organism learns to respond to the new stimulus in the same way it responded to a familiar stimulus
- Dogs trained them to drool in response to ringing a bell. This was accomplished by associating a new stimulus (the bell) with a known stimulus (the food). Eventually, the dog was conditioned to respond to the bell with the same response the food produced.
Operant Conditioning
Skinner Theory:
-Learning process by which a response (operant) is shaped by reinforcement
-Reinforcement
•Positive reinforcement occurs when a [usually pleasurable] stimulus makes a behaviour more likely.
•Negative reinforcement occurs when the removal of a [usually unpleasant] stimulus makes a behaviour more likely.
- Skinner believed that behaviour is shaped by consequences
- Shaping: the reinforcement of intermediate steps until individual learns a complex behaviour (Ex: when learning tennis you first learn to hold the racket then hit the ball, etc.)
Rat Tests:
Rats were placed in a box containing levers and lights. Rats learned to press a lever to remove an unpleasant stimulus (an electrical current that would turn off when the lever was pushed), or to obtain a pleasurable stimulus (food). The first pushing of the lever was random and accidental – but the rats would quickly learn to modify their behaviour in response, and would soon intentionally push the lever to obtain the desired result.
Cognitive Theorists Think What?
- Cognitive theorists view people as information processors and problem solvers. Theories emphasize the way people attempt to acquire, interpret and use information to solve life’s problems.
- These theories emphasize conscious processes and problem solving strategies.
- They are based on the theory that psychological problems come from dysfunctional or distorted patterns of thinking
- Originated by Beck
•Aaron Beck & Albert Bandura & Jean Piaget
Cognitive Therapy
Aaron Beck Theory:
The goals of Cognitive Therapy include:
1. Identify erroneous beliefs
2. Compare belief to evidence and correcting distortions in belief
3. Giving feedback regarding accuracy of new beliefs
4. Allowing and encouraging rehearsal of new beliefs
Distorted Patterns of Thinking Selective Abstraction Minimization Personalization Arbitrary Inference Magnification Overgeneralization
Social-Cognitive Theory
Albert Bandura Theory:
•learning can occur without external forces influencing behaviour (such as conditioning): People’s ability to think about and anticipate consequences of potential behaviour contribute to learning and chosen behaviours.
•Learning is achieved primarily through interactions with other people and learning from their own behaviours and choices.
•This theory states that behaviour is shaped by a) personal characteristics, b) environmental influences and c) behaviour choices
•The idea that people can learn from others, and are self-efficacious (i.e. that they can perform actions based on information acquired from others and by extrapolating from past experiences) are important to health promotion.
I.e. We can expect that people can change their behaviour before something bad happens to them!
Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget Theory:
•cognitive development in children.
•Emphasizes inborn abilities as the foundation upon which the process of cognitive growth is based.
•Piaget divides cognitive development into 4 phases, through which children normally progress as they age.
Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operations, Formal Operations.
Moral Theorists Think What?
Moral development theorists focus their work on how morality and moral capacity develops in humans.
•Lawrence Kohlberg & Carol Gilligan
Theory of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg Theory:
•morality develops in stages. More advanced logical thinking is needed for each stage.
The Ethics of Care
Carol Gilligan Theory:
•Gilligan a student of Lawrence Kohlberg
•Gilligan argued that Kohlberg’s model of moral development was gender
•She developed a theory of relationship ethics that was more amenable to the female experience: the Ethics of Care.
•(Gilligan’s work in the Ethics of Care remains highly influential in Nursing Ethics)
Again, more information on Gilligan is found in Chapter 12 of your text
Humanistic Theorists Think What?
- Humanism emphasizes self-actualization, satisfaction of the needs, the individual as a rule unto him or herself, and realization of innate goodness and creativity
- What is the possibility of the person? What is an optimum state for the person? Under what conditions can this state be reached?
- Abraham Maslow
Theory of Motivation and Hierarchy
Maslov Theory
•Needs represent are based on self-actualization: the tendency to develop potentialities and become a better person.
•Human beings are motivated by a hierarchy of intrinsic or innate/universal needs.
•Needs can be viewed as requirements that call for satisfaction or gratification.
•Maslow divided his hierarchy into Deficit and Being needs. When deficit needs exist, the individual will be motivated to satisfy those needs that are lower on the hierarchy before satisfying higher order needs.
•Once gratified, however, an individual can shift his or her attention to other, higher order needs. In this way, only unsatisfied needs are motivating forces.
Hierarchy: need for self-actualization esteem needs love and belonging this needs safety needs physiological needs
Ecological Theory
- At the core of the “nature/nuture” theory mentioned earlier, is the belief that people have certain in-born characteristics, which are then modified by their environments.
- Ecology is the “science that is concerned with the community and the total setting in which life and behaviour occur”.
Systems Theory
- Systems theories attempt to consolidate different theoretical approaches into one, comprehensive theory of human development.
- One such approach is Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory.
- In this approach, factors that influence development are viewed as multiple layers. These factors interact with one another in complex ways. Each individual’s development is influenced by the complex interactions of factors that is unique to that person.
Stress
the nonspecific response of the body to a stressor
Stressor
- a demand or threat, either real or imagined that produces a stress response
- stressors can be highly individualized & can be positive as well as negative
- even a positive like having a wanted baby can cause stress and put a strain on the system
Can be physical:
- extreme temperature,
- accidents & injury,
- illness,
- strenuous activity,
- starvation
Can be emotional or psychological:
- the loss of a loved one
- pressures of school/university
- family conflict, marital discord, separation, divorce
- a difficult day at work
- inability to solve a problem or escape unpleasant situation
- marriage
- travel
General Adaptation Syndrome
the body’s short-term and long-term reactions to stress. Occurs over 3 stages
Stage 1: Alarm Reaction
- Body prepares for “fight or flight”:
- When a demand is encountered or threat perceived, the anterior pituitary gland stimulates release of hormones that trigger sympathetic nervous system activity.
- Along with the parsympathetic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system is a branch of the Autonomic Nervous System
Stage 2: Stage of Resistance
- If the stress continues, the body adapts to reduce the effect of the stressor
- For example, if starving, desire for physical activity will be reduced to conserve energy & absorption of nutrients from foods will be maximized
Stage 3: Stage of Exhaustion
-If the stress still persists, the body’s resistance to the stress may gradually be reduced, or may collapse quickly. Generally, this means the immune system, and the body’s ability to resist disease, may be severely diminished.
Stress and the nervous system such as:
- parasympathetic
- sympathetic
- adrenaline
- noradrenaline
- sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system prepares the body for emergencies: for “fight or flight”
- parasympathetic branch reverses changes produced by the sympathetic branch when the danger is over. In some cases, some parasympathetic responses will inadvertently occur during the alarm stage, e.g. loss of anal and urinary sphincter control
- adrenaline released into the blood ensures that all the cells of the body will be exposed to sympathetic stimulation
-noradrenaline release:
* stimulates heartbeat
* raises blood pressure
* dilates the pupils
* dilates the trachea and bronchi
* stimulates the conversion of liver glycogen into glucose
* shunts blood away from the skin and viscera to the
skeletal muscles, brain, & heart
* inhibits peristalsis in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract
* inhibits contraction of the bladder and rectum
Effective Coping Strategies for Stress
- Identify the stressor
- Remove or negate the stressor
- Reappraise the situation
- Learn techniques of relaxation
- Engage in physical exercise
- Seek social support
