Moduel 4

Question 1

Summarize the major milestones of growth and motor development between 2 and 6. (Table 7.1)

Answer 1

18-24 months

• runs/walks well, unscrews jars, pushes/pulls boxes
• hand preference, stacks blocks, turns pages one at time

2-3 years

• runs easily, climbs furniture unaided, hauls/shoves big toys
• picks up small objects, throws small ball while standing

3-4 years

• walks on tiptoes, oedals/steers tricycke, walks upstairs one foot per step
• catches large ball, cuts paper, holds pencil

4-5 years

• stands/rubs/walks on tiptoes
• stricks ball with bat, kick/catch ball, holds pencip properly

5-6years

• walks on line, skips, slides/swings
• threads needle and sews large stiches

Question 2

Review the important changes that happen in the brain during these years.

Answer 2

Laterilizarion

• process throough which brain functions are divided between hemispheres
• corpos callosum grows
• language in left.hem

Reticular Formation/Hippocampus

• mylination of reticular/hippo
• hippo=memory formation
• infantile amnisia- inability of adults to remeber more than a few childhood events (probably due to maturation of hippo)
• prior to 3 few memories

Handedness
-strong prefernce for using one hand over other

Question 3

Review the nutritional and health care needs of young children (additional info on accidents in slides)

Answer 3

Eating/Activity Patterns

• grow more slowly so eat less + food adversions begin
• kids eat 1/2 as much food as adults12% of children are obsese Aged 2-5
• obesogenic environemtns such as fast food contributing. (watching tv = eating more snacks + less leg strength)

Accidents

• 1/5 of all child dealths are from unintended injuries
• 90% of childhood injeries are preventable
• child proof lids, lowering hot water temps, removing choking hazards
• must childproof home

Question 4

Define adverse childhood experiences

Answer 4

childhood stressors, ranging from day to day maltreatment to traumatic events, that increase the risk of wide-ranging negative health and social consequences over the life course

• neglect is 34% of cases
• exposure to intimate partner violence 34%
• physical abuse 20%
• emotional maltreatment 9%
• sexual abuse 3%

Question 5

Summarize the characteristics of children’s thought during Piaget’s preoperational stage.

Answer 5

He marked the beginning of the preoperational period as the point where children begin to use mental symbols. In his view, preschool children are still egocentric, lack understanding of conservation and are fooled by appearances.

• semiotic (symbol) function: understanding that one object or behaviour can represent another
• great at using symbols for thinking/communicating but difficulty with logical thinking
• egocentric: child’s belief that everyone sees and experiences the world the way she does
• centration: tendency to think of the world in terms of one variable at a time
• conservation: understanding that matter can change in appearance without changing in quantity (water pour into two glasses)

Question 6

Review how recent research has challenged Piaget’s view of this period.

Answer 6

Research indicated that children are less egocentric than Piaget though. By age 4 they can distinguish between appearance and reality in a variety of tasks.

Egocentrism and perspective taking
Two levels of perspective taking ability level one the child knows that other people experience things differently at level to the child develops a whole series of complex rules are figuring out precisely what the other person sees or experiences
Level two evident in four and five-year-olds.

Appearance and reality
Four and five-year-olds can distinguish between appearance and reality they realize that the item looks like a rock but is a sponge versus three-year-olds will say either that the object looks like a sponge and is a sponge or that it looks like a rock and is a rock

Question 7

Briefly review to understand the uses and flaws of IQ testing.

Answer 7

IQ scores are now based on a direct comparison of a child’s performance with the average performance of a large group of other children of the same age. The average is 100 scores over 130 or cold gifted scores below 70 may be diagnosed with an intellectual disability

Pro
-scores on early childhood IQ tests are predictive of later school performance and moderately consistent over time (stable)

Con
-only measure limited range of skill
-Measures specific range of skills needed for success in school
They do not include a persons creativity insight ability to read social cues or understanding of spatial relationships

Question 8

Summarize the major themes of development proposed by psychoanalytic theorists for the early childhood period. 8.1

Answer 8

.Both Freud and Erickson’s theories of personality development place primary importance on balancing parental control with a child’s emerging needs and skills Erickson describe two stages in which autonomy and initiative are developed.

Freud emphasized to psychosexual stages the developmental task of the anal phase is toilet training the task of the phallic stage is to establish a foundation for later gender and moral development by identifying with same sex parent to summarize this is when children first getting control of their bodily functions and second renegotiate their relationships with their parents

Ericksons stages are triggered by children’s growing physical cognitive and social skills. Autonomy versus shame and doubt centres on toddlers mobility and desire for autonomy the stage initiative versus guilt is on preschoolers ability to plan which accentuates his wish to take initiative the key during this period is striking a balance between the child’s emerging skills and desire for autonomy and the parents need to protect and control the child’s behaviour

Question 9

Summarize the findings of social-cognitive theorists with respect to young children’s understanding of the social world. 8.2

Answer 9

.Social cognitive theorist’s asserts that advances in social and personality development are associated with improvements in cognitive development
three topics of interest to social cognitive theorist’s are:

personal perception
-The ability to classify others according to categories such as age gender and race example classifying people as nice or not nice, grumpy and mean. Also categorize others based on observable characteristics such as race age and gender

understanding rule categories

• children begin to respond differently to violations of social conventions in moral rules between ages two and three
• for example:taking another child’s toy without permission as a more serious violation of rules then forgetting to say thank you

understanding others intentions

• Young children do understand intentions to some degree
• for example they might say it was an accident I didn’t mean to do it when they are punished
• this suggests they understand that intentional wrongness is punished more severely than unintentional transgressions of the rules

Question 10

Describe how attachment changes during the early childhood years. 8.3

Answer 10

Except in stressful circulations attachment behaviours become less visible as the child gets older. preschoolers refuse or defy parental influence attempts more than infants do. Due to a heightened sense of autonomy. Despite this two-year-olds are still likely to comply with safety requests or with prohibitions about care of objects such as don’t tear up that book. outright defiance however declines from age 2 to 6 both these changes are clearly linked to the child’s language and cognitive gains

Children who are securely attached have fewer behaviour problems versus insecurely attached display more anger and aggression towards peers and adults they are also more likely than their peers to develop negative critical attitudes towards themselves

Age 4 is goal-corrected partnership The relationship continues to exist even when the parents are of hearts securely attached for-year-olds have positive relationships with their teachers

Question 11

Trace a child’s changing relationship with his or her peers through play. 8.9

Answer 11

Play with peers is evident before age 2 and becomes increasingly important through the preschool years at every age children spend some time in solitary play and may exhibit onlooker play a pattern in which the watch another child play by 14 to 18 months children engage in parallel play playing alongside each other but not interacting at 18 months associative play play that includes some interaction is a parent by three or four children begin to engage in cooperative play in which they work together to accomplish a goal

Another skill is group entry children skilled in group entry spend time observing others to find out what they’re doing and then become part of it children with poor group entry skills try to gain acceptance through aggressive behaviour or by interrupting the group these are often rejected by peers

Question 12

Trace the changes in the young child’s self-concept (categorical, emotional, and social selves) during the preschool years. 8.13

Answer 12

The preschooler continues to defined himself along a series of objective dimensions but does not yet have a global sense of self children make major strides in self-control and in their understanding of their own social rules in the preschool years as parents gradually turn over the job of control to the child

The categorical self

• 18 to 24 months
• Self-concept focusses on only physical characteristics but they look like who they play with where they live with their good at rather than on more enduring inner qualities

emotional self

• 18 to 24 months
• preschool girls showed higher emotional knowledge than boys children demonstrated the ability to conceptualize complex emotions such as pride children can exhibit emotional regulation where they find ways to cheer themselves up this is linked to a variety of social variables example age to emotional regulation predicted aggression level at age for preschoolers who displayHi emotional regulation or more popular with peers another aspect involves empathy which is the ability to identify another person’s emotional state it has two aspects apprehending another’s emotional state Then matching that emotional state. Empathy is negatively associated with aggression

the social self

• Age 2 to 6
• Children have learned a variety of social Scripps and they can begin to use them themselves to identify their self as a helper or a boss they begin to take explicit rules I’ll be the daddy you’ll be the mommy and they understand their place in the network of family rules it helps them become independent such as assuming the student role

Question 13

Briefly review how preschoolers acquire gender concepts and sex-role knowledge 8.15

Answer 13

Children begin to learn what appropriate behaviour for their gender is at about age 2. Toddlers can associate feeding a baby applying make up and wearing dresses with women and cars and Tamarine with men by age 3 or four children can assign stereo typical occupations toys and activities to each gender
by age 5 or six most children have developed fairly rigid rules about what girls or boys are supposed to do and be. The associate certain personality traits such as assertiveness and nurturance with males or females. At the beginning children think of these as absolute moral rules later by about 89 they understand that these are social conventions

Question 14

Identify what kinds of physical changes occur during middle childhood. 9.1

Answer 14

Physical development from age 6 to age 12 is steady and slow children gain 5 to 8 cm in height and about 2.75 kg of weight each year. Girls in this age range are ahead of boys in overall rate of growth by age 12 girls have attained about 93% of their adult height but boys are only 84%. sex differences in skeletal and muscular maturation may lead boys and girls to pursue different activities. Girls are better coordinated but slower and somewhat weaker

Question 15

Describe the ways the brain changes during these years. 9.2

Answer 15

Neurological development leads to improvements in selective attention information processing speed and spatial perception mapping of the structural and functional neural connections of the brain and nervous system are now underway

Increase in my location at the beginning of middle childhood this occurs rapidly in the sensory and motor areas of the brain which may be linked to the striking improvements in fine motor skills and hand eye coordination.

Continued myelination of the reticular formation and the nerves that link this with the frontal lobe’s which are areas that govern logic and planning. Reticular formation controls attention. Selective attention is the ability to focus cognitive activity on the important element of a problem or situation

Neurons of the association areas which are parts of the brain where sensory motor and intellectual functions are linked Are myelinated by the time children enter middle childhood. This increases information processing speed

In the right cerebral hemisphere the ladder relation of spatial perception which is the ability to identify an act on relationships between objects in space appears

Spatial cognition which is the ability to infer rules from and make predictions about the movement of objects in space. Boys score much higher than girls

Question 16

Identify what the health risks are for 6- to 12-year-olds. (Injuries, obesity) 9.3

Answer 16

School age children require regular medical check ups unintentional injuries and unhealthy weights are the most prevalent health problems of this age group

Immunization
-Immunization history should be reviewed to ensure optimal vaccination coverage including HPV hepatitis B

unintentional injuries

• Unintentional injury remains the most common cause of death in Canadian children accounting for 30% of fatalities from the age of 5 to 9
• Highest for males than females and more than half 58% of the fatal injuries in children are due to motor vehicle crashes followed by drowning falls and fire at 6% each
• The majority of non-fatal unintentional injuries are caused by falls being struck by or against an object or person
• Play ground accidents account for about half of all traumatic brain injury

healthy bodies and weight
-The reduction in unintentional injuries is because children are less active
A BMI below the 5th percentile is underweight versus above the 85th percentile is overweight above the 95th is obese
-First nations children are 2 to 3 times higher than average for unhealthy body weights
A quarter of Canadian children have unhealthy body weights with 14% of boys and 90% of girls overweight and 9% of girls and 8% of boys obese
-Three risk factors for predicting excessive weight gain in childhood are overweight parent large size for gestational age at birth and early onset of being overweight
Overweight children have the risk of developing type two diabetes sleep apnoea cardiovascular disease and Socio emotional problems such as low self-esteem depression and negative body image
-Children aren’t just fatter they are also weaker 1/4 fail to meet the recommended daily duration of physical activity while 37% exceed the sedentary behaviour recommendation of no more than two hours per day of screen time

Question 17

Describe what changes occur as children enter Piaget’s Concrete Operational stage 9.4

Answer 17

Piaget proposed that a major change in the child’s thinking occurs at about age 6 when the child begins to understand powerful operations such as reversibility and decentration the child also learns to use inductive logic but does not yet use deductive logic

The concrete operational stage is the third stage of cognitive development during which children construct schemes that enable them to think logically about objects and events in the real world they can figure out that a lump of clay has the same mass no matter how its appearance is changed

Decentration is thinking that takes multiple variables into account school-age child can see that a ball of clay rolled into a sausage shaped is not only wider than it was before but also shorter thereby compensates for the increased width by a reduced height

Can think reversibly which is the understanding that both physical actions and mental operations can be reversed the clay sausage can be made back into the ball

Can use inductive logic which is a type of reasoning in which general principles are inferred from specific experiences for example she can make assumptions that her friends parents live in a mansion therefore her friends parents are wealthy

Not yet good at deductive logic a type of reasoning based on hypothetical premises that require predicting a specific outcome from a general principle. Example children might classify a whale as a fish because it has fish like characteristics

Question 18

Explain how children’s information-processing skills improve during middle childhood: Namely, Define executive processes, understand memory strategies. 9.6

Answer 18

Processing Efficiency

• The ability to make efficient use of short term memory capacity
• Processing speed gets faster with age

Automaticity

• The ability to recall information from long-term memory without using short term memory
• Freeze up short term memory space For more complex processing
• Achieved primarily through practice

Executive and Strategic Processing
-Information processing skills that involve devising and caring out strategies for remembering and problem-solving
Metacognition knowing about knowing or thinking about thinking which is part of a large group of skills known as executive processes
-Help the individual devise methods for remembering information called memory strategies
-Examples are rehearsal organization elaboration mnemonic systematic searching

Expertise

• Children and adults who know a lot about a topic example dinosaurs categorize information about that topic in highly complex and hierarchical ways
• Better at remembering and logically analyzing new information on that topic
• Capacity for creativity depends on how much knowledge they have about a topic

Question 19

Explain the challenges of evaluating students across Canada’s educational systems. 9.11

Answer 19

.Children’s school progress is assessed with both IQ tests and achievement tests both types of tests may ignore more important aspects of intellectual functioning.

And achievement test may have a problem 4 x 4 however the child might get to the answer 16 from either learning it in school having their parents taught them multiplication or if they’re bright children they may be able to reason themselves to the correct answer therefore assessment tests do not actually access school learning.

Alternative types of intelligence can include linguistic mathematical musical spatial naturalist and personal body kinaesthetic

Emotional intelligence which has three components awareness of one’s own emotions ability to express one’s emotions appropriately and the capacity to channel emotions into the pursuit of worthwhile goals

Question 20

Summarize what kinds of group differences in achievement educational researchers have found. 9.12

Answer 20

There are no gender differences in overall IQ scores but girls do consistently better on language science and math tests there is as yet no clear agreement on how to explain such differences differences in achievement may also result from differences in analytical or relational learning styles

Analytic style is a tendency to focus on the details of the task versus a relational style is a tendency to ignore the details of a task in order to focus on the bigger picture

Question 21

Describe the issues involved with children with learning disabilities. 9.13

Answer 21

.There is considerable dispute about defining and explaining learning disabilities and some children who are labelled as such have been missed classified particularly speaking learning disability serves to describe children who do not learn as quickly as their intelligence test scores suggest they should.

A learning disability is a disorder in which a child has difficulty mastering a specific academic skill even though she possesses average to above average intelligent and has no physical or sensory handicaps. It can include dyslexia which is selective interference with reading dysgraphia interference with writing dyscalculia interference with math. These are life long range in severity and may also involve difficulties with organizational skills social perception social interaction and perspective taking.

Question 22

Describe how attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder affects a child’s development. 9.14

Answer 22

Children with ADHD have problems with both academic learning and social relationships medication parent training and behaviour modifications can be used in helping children with ADHD overcome these difficulties

3.7% of boys and 1.5% of girls. People with ADHD I’m more physically active impulsive and have less attention than their peers.

Causes of ADHD is unknown however some think there’s a neurological difference. fairly sure that diet environmental toxins or brain damage are not the cause.

A common factor is sleep problems were children have difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.

Characteristics of ADHD
-They are three types of ADHD one a hyperactive impulsive type in which high activity levels is the main problem to the inattentive type in which an inability to sustain attention is the major difficulty and three the combined type which presents symptoms from both

Treatment and managing ADHD

• Some children take Ritalin to calm them and increase concentration concentration skills can also be increased with training
• Having set routines like finish all school work before watching TV can also be helpful

Question 23

• Describe how psychoanalytic theorists characterized the middle childhood years. 10.1

Answer 23

Both Freud and Erickson agreed that peer relationships and associated emotions play a key role in middle childhood.

Erickson theorized that 6 to 12 year olds acquire a sense of industry by achieving educational goals determined by their cultures. Industry versus inferiority during which children develop a sense of their own competence through mastery of culturally defined learning tasks.

Freud thought middle childhood was to form emotional bond with peers and to move beyond those that were developed with parents in earlier years

Question 24

Define: Psychological Self and Valued Self and how they fit with self concept

Ctd. Oh 272

Answer 24

.Physiological self

• a persons understanding of his or her enduring physiological characteristics
• Between ages six and 12 children construct a physiological self as a result their self descriptions begin to include personality traits such as intelligence and friendliness along with physical characteristic
• Self efficacy as an individual’s belief in her capacity to Cause an intended event to occur
• self comparison the process of drawing conclusions about the self based on comparison to others place in integral role in the degree to which children gain insight into their own self efficacy by observing peers

The valued self
-Self-esteem appears to be shaped by two factors the degree of discrepancy a child experiences between goals and achievements and the degree of perceived social support from peers and parents having a strong sense of meaningfulness helps prepare children for the challenges they will face in adolescence

Question 25

Define self esteem and review information on how it develops 10

Ctd. Oh 272

Answer 25

Self-esteem is a global evaluation of one’s own worth

The nature of self esteem

• By age 5 children already expressed a strong sense of self-esteem such as gender identity and gender attitude
• Plater children’s valuations of their own abilities become increasingly compartmentalized with different judgements about academic skill athletic physical appearance social friendships
• Play age 7 to 8 children can Bradley answer questions about how well they like themselves as people how happy they are and how well they like the way they are leaving their lives

How self esteem develops

• Self-esteem is strongly influenced by mental comparisons of children’s ideal self and their actual experience
• The key to self-esteem is the amount of discrepancy between what the child desires and what the child thinks he has received
• The second major influence is the overall support the child feels they are receiving from important people such as parents peers and others
• To attain high self-esteem a child must acquire first the sense that they are liked and excepted in the family and then in their friends
• Note that a loving and excepting family do not guarantee high self-esteem if the person does not feel they are living up to their own stand vice versa is also true
• In individualistic cultures children develop a sense of self-esteem based on their own interests and abilities in a collectivist culture self-esteem is based on the children’s cultural ideas about what a good person is

Meaningfulness

• The spiritual self is distinct from religious city this is that a persons belief must be at a deep personal level for the benefits to be felt
• Spiritual education of preadolescents commonly focusses on truisms facts and practises then on learning to trust one’s intuition and emotions in the quest for meaningful existence
• Strong sense of spirituality me answer questions about the meaning of life which can impact their mental health and well-being as well as set the stage for dealing with aspirations and challenges they will face

Question 26

Describe how children’s understanding of others changes in middle childhood. 10.5

Answer 26

.Between age 6 and 12 children understanding of others stable internal traits improve. Depictions of other people move from the concrete to the abstract the child becomes more focussed on inner traits or qualities they still describe others physical features but their descriptions are now used as examples of more general points about internal qualities

Question 27

Describe how self-regulation affects school-aged children’s relationships with their parents. 10.7

Answer 27

Relationships with parents, less overly affectionate with fewer attachment behaviours in middle childhood the strength of the attachment however appears to persist.

Parents recognize their children’s growing capacity for self regulation the ability to conform to parental standards of behaviour without direct supervision.

Some sex differences where boys are given more autonomy over their behaviour but girls are hold to higher standards of accountability for failure

Question 28

Summarize what changes occur in children’s understanding of friendships during this period. 10.8

Answer 28

Friendships become stable in middle childhood. children selection of friends depends on variables Such as trustworthy as well as characteristics such as play preference and gender

Appearance of best friend relationships. children who have a best friend are more likely than those without to have positive relationships with most of the children they know.

Young children say that people make friends by playing together or spending time together as they age this turns more into viewing friendships based on reciprocal trust.

Children are more open and more supportive when they’re with their charms smiling looking up laughing and touching one another. Those that say that they would help a friend who is being bullied even by putting themselves at risk of being treated similarly have more friends