Moduel 5

Question 1

Identify the major milestones of puberty.

Answer 1

Puberty is triggered by a complex set of hormonal changes beginning at about age 7 or eight very large increases in gonadotropic hormones are central to the process in girls sexual maturity is achieved as early as age 12 or 13 sexual maturity is achieved later in the boys with the growth spurt or Karine a year or more after the start of genital changes

Puberty
-the collective term for the physical changes that culminate in sexual maturity.
-Starts when the pituitary gland signals a child’s adrenal gland to step up its production of androgen
-Adrenal androgen triggers a growth spurt in girls and affects development of pubic hair for boys it’s less significantt
Testes and penis and the ovaries uterus and vagina all grow breasts develop voice pitch changes and beard growth

Sexual development in Girls

• Early changes in breasts and pubic hair peak of the growth spurt development of breast and pubic hair first menstruation an event called menarche (~12.7yr) final stage of breast and pubic hair development
• It is possible to become pregnant shortly after menarche but a regular menstrual cycles make this highly unlikely

Secular Trend

• The decline in the average age of menarche along with changes such as an increase in average height for both children and adults that happened between the mid 19th and mid 20th century’s in Western countries and occurs in developing nations when nutrition and health improves
• In 1840 periods Started at roughly 17
• Body fat must be 17% before menarche can occur

Sexual Development in Boys
-Boys complete stage 23 and four of genital development and stage two and three of pubic hair development before reaching the peak of the growth spurt his first ejaculation or spermarche occurs between 13 and 14 but the production of viable sperm does not happen until a few months after this the development of a beard and Lauren a voice of her at the end of the sequence

Timing
-diet exercise and body fat contribute to the timing of puberty hereditary and behavioural factors also contribute to hormonal secretions

Question 2

Review how the brains and other body systems of adolescents differ from those of younger children.

Answer 2

Myelination progresses steadily Throughout the brain during this. And there is an inverted you shaped developmental patterns in gray matter volumes from early childhood to adolescence as synaptogenesis is followed by synaptic pruning puberty is accompanied by a rapid growth spurt in height and an increase in muscle mass and fat boys add more muscle and girls add more fat becoming overweight and less fit is a growing concern for Canadian youth.

The brain

• The brains volume of gray matter follows an inverted U-shaped trajectory from early childhood to early adult hood the decreasing amount may reflect the process of pruning among the last brain regions to reach adult levels or areas within the frontal cortex that are linked to the control of impulses judgement and decision making
• The volume of white matter steadily increases in the four major lobes which is a developmental pattern that is associated with the cognitive behavioural and emotional differences between children and adults

the skeletal system

• Adolescence grow 5 to 13 cm a year then they add height and weight slowly until they reach their adult size with girls attaining most of their height by 16 and boys at 18 to 20
• A teenager’s hands and feet are the first body parts to grow to full size followed by arms and legs then truck
• The jar changes shape and joint development increases coordination

the musculature system

• Muscle fibres become thicker and denser and a lot stronger this increase is much greater and boys
• Proportion of fat rises amongst girls and declines amongst boys proportion of weight that is muscle rises in boys and declines in girls

the heart and lungs
-Heart rate drops greater endurance increase heart and lung sites

body weight in fitness
The rate of overweight adolescence increased to 20% obesity increased to 10% and fitness levels have declined significantly

Question 3

Identify the issues involved with the sexual behaviour of adolescents.

Answer 3

. Roughly 2/3 of all Canadian teams have had sexual intercourse by the time they reach 19 years of age

Sex before age 15 is 9% current rate for 15 to 17-year-olds is 30% and for 18 to 19-year-olds it is 68%

37% of females and 27% of males age 15 to 24 so they did not use condoms which increases the rate of STI’s and unwanted pregnancy
only 3/4 of Canadian females reported consistently using birth control

STI

• Even if they are knowledgable many teens may lack the assertiveness necessary to resist sexual pressure or discuss condom use
• Chlamydia gonorrhoea and syphilis I’ve been on the rise in youth aged 15 to 19

Sex Education
-Must include both information motivation to use the information as well as behavioural training skills such as condom acquisition andSafe sex negotiation

Question 4

Summarize the issues involved in teenaged pregnancy.

Answer 4

.Roughly 3 out of every 100 Canadian teenage girls become pregnant less than half of pregnant teenagers give birth the long-term consequences for the teens that give birth are generally negative although with support such women may overcome the disadvantages

• Slightly more than half of all pregnancies of 15 to 19-year-olds are terminated through abortion
• Children of teenage mothers are more likely to grow up in poverty
• These kids progress more slowly through developmental milestones
• Teenage girls that do well in school and have strong educational aspirations are less likely to get pregnant less likely to be sexually active early more likely to use contraceptive

Question 5

Identify issues around emergence of sexual orientation and gender identity in adolescence.

Answer 5

.
Hormonal genetic and environmental factors have been proposed to explain homosexuality the process of realizing ones sexual orientation is a gradual one that often isn’t completed until early adulthood transgendered teens are those whose psychological gender differs from their biological sex

Lesbian/Gay/Bi

• 96% of teens are heterosexual 1.4% or questioning 1% are exclusively gay or lesbian and 3.5% are bisexual
• If one identical twin is homosexual the probability that the other is 50% for ternal twins are only about 20% and only 11% for biologically unrelated boys adopted by the same family
• Woman whose mothers took the drug DES diethylstilbestrol during pregnancy or more likely to be homosexual as adults than women who are not exposed to DES in the womb
• Coming out is a gradual thing

Transgender
-May have been exposed to a typical amount of androgens in the room
-Most children who are attracted to cross gender activities and even those who expressed a desire to be the opposite gender do not exhibit transgender is him after puberty therefore this behaviour is not predictive
-Some seek. sex reassignment although at least half who explored this option rejected in favour of a less dramatic way of coping with her dilemma of those who do undertake the procedure most are happy with the results and experience relief from their distress
-

Question 6

Identify major factors impacting adolescent health, including;
o the impact of risk-taking behaviours
o patterns of drug, alcohol, and tobacco use among adolescents in Canada.
o Briefly review factors that contribute to eating disorders.
o Understand issues surrounding adolescent depression and suicide.

Answer 6

Sensation Seeking
Teens engage in higher rates of various kinds of risky behaviour including unprotected sex drug used and fast driving.
-More likely to dry faster follow too closely switch traffic lanes and you seat belts less.
-Lack of maturity in the prefrontal cortex might be cause of higher levels of sensation seeking

Drugs S,oking and Alcohol
Use of alcohol and marijuana remain high among Canadian teenagers but less so for the use of hard drugs and smoking. Sensation seeking and neuroticism are associated with alcohol and drug use and abuse.

Eating Disordera
Eating disorders such as boulimia and anorexia are more common among teenage girls and teenage boys. Some theorist have proposed biological and Socio economic costs. Others hypothesized that media images of thin models and celebrities because the body image distortions that underlie eating disorders. Still others emphasize the tendency of individuals with eating disorders to exhibit other kinds of disordered thoughts and be diagnosed with other psychological disorders.

Depression and Suicide
Depression and suicide or mental health problems that are common during adolescence. Genetics social stressors and low self-esteem are thought to be contributing factors. Although both depression and suicide attempts are more common among girls boys are more likely to succeed with a suicide attempt.

Question 7

Describe the characteristics of thought in Piaget’s formal operational stage.

Answer 7

.Fort Piaget the formal operational stage is characterized by the ability to apply basic cognitive operations to ideas and possibilities in addition to actual objects

Formal operational stage:
-the forth of Piagets stages during which adolescents learn to reason logically about abstract concepts

Systematic Problem Solving
-the process of finding a solution to a problem by testing single factors
-pendelem problem. Adolescences will vary one variable (only string) to find out best solution vs children will vary combos (did string length and weight) which is ineffective
-

Logic.
Hypothetical deductive reasoning ability to derive conclusions from hypothetical premises
-Deductive reasoning involves considering hypothesis or hypothetical Premises and then driving logical outcomes
-If all people are equal then you and I must be equal

Question 8

Summarize some major research findings regarding the formal operational stage.

Answer 8

Although some adolescence the exhibit advanced forms of thinking formal operational thinking is not universal nor is it consistently used by those who are able to do it

• Can understand figurative language such as metaphors
• Can understand proverbs example people who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones (6 to 11-year-olds interpret this literally)
• Only two of the 20 grade 12 participants used formal operation logic on all 10 problems these results are similar to those in the 60s 70s and 80s
• This suggests that piagets predictions about adolescent thinking we’re overly optimistic
• Rates of formal operational thinking increase with education. Piagets Overly optimistic prediction may have resulted from his failure to appreciate the rule of education in the development of advanced thoughts

Question 9

Describe what kinds of advances in information-processing capabilities occur during adolescence.

Answer 9

Memory function improves in adolescence as teens become more proficient in metacognition metamemory and strategy use. They process information faster and use processing resources more efficiently. Better at using strategies to solve problems.

Metacognition Metamemory and Strategy Use

• By 13 or 14 Meta cognitive skills far exceed those of younger children.
• Researchers taught elementary school and teenagers memory learning task and then got them to memorize new information only teenagers Inc. this new strategy. Teenagers excelled in their ability to recognize the similarity between the two tasks.

Text Learning

• Four rules for written summaries. First they would delete trivial information. Second their summaries would show categorical organization. Third the summaries would use topic sentences from the text. Fourth they would invent a topic sentences for paragraphs I didn’t have them.
• All ages used the first rule. 10 and 13-year-olds didn’t use other rules. 15 and 18-year-olds used categories. Only 18-year-olds used topic sentences effectively.

Question 10

Identify what variables predict the likelihood of dropping out of secondary school.

Answer 10

.Those who succeed academically in secondary school typically have parents who have high aspirations for them those who drop out are less likely to find value in school life

Those who achieve in school despite backgrounds that include poverty or daunting obstacles likely have parents who had a high aspirations for them

• In 1990 17% of Canadians didn’t finish high school by 2014 this was 7%
• Children in low socioeconomic status families are more likely to leave school early teenagers who are living alone or come from families with no psychological support for academic achievement who have caregivers with low levels of education or negative attitudes towards education are also more likely to leave school early
• Dual credit programs provided by colleges or apprenticeship programs help reduce leaving school early

Long Term consequences
-Associated with higher unemployment as adult -lower wages as adult

Question 11

Describe what happens during Erikson’s identity versus role confusion stage.

Answer 11

For Erickson adolescence is a period when a person face is a crisis of identity versus role confusion out of which the teenager must develop a sense of who he is where he belongs in his culture

Erikson thought that a sense of personal identity is far more important developmental task faced by adolescents

• Identity: and understanding of one’s unique characteristics and how they have been ordered and will be manifested across ages situations and social rules
• identity vs role confusion: Stage during which adolescents attain a sense of who they are
• Confusion about these rules leads to an identity crisis which is a state of emotional turmoil that arises when the adolescence sense of self becomes unglued so that a new or mature sense of self can be achieved
• And adolescents tendency to identify with peer groups is a defence mechanism against identity crisis by merging their individual identities with that of a group the teen protects them selves
• the group forms a base of security from which the young person can move towards a unique solution for the identity crisis

Question 12

Discuss the ways that self-understanding in adolescence differs from that in childhood.

Answer 12

.Self definitions become increasingly abstract In adolescence with more emphasis on enduring internal qualities and ideology

Increasing stability of the big five personality traits as a result enduring traits such as shyness show up in adolescents self descriptions for more than they do in those of younger children
-Question who I am I is not met with physical attributes but with abstract traits or ideology

Question 13

Describe how self-esteem changes across the teenage years.

Answer 13

.Self-esteem drop someone at the beginning of adolescent and then rises steadily throughout the teenage years

An overall rise and self-esteem throughout the lessons which increases slowly through early adult hood

• Factors that influence the teens self-esteem include personal characteristics relationships with significant others lifestyle factors and achievements
• High self-esteem is correlated with positive developmental outcomes a better ability to resist peer pressure and achieve higher grades
• Low self-esteem is associated with poor mental and physical health antisocial behaviour mean disorders anxiety depression and suicidal thinking

Question 14

Describe the changing relationships of adolescents with their parents.

Answer 14

Adolescent parent interactions typically become somewhat more conflicted in early adolescence strong attachment to parents remain so and our predictive of good peer relations

Conflict with Parent

• Teens disagree with the parents most when it comes to every day issues such as chores. There are less parenting conflict over issues such as who they are dating drugs or appearance and sex
• Parent team conflicts appear to cause more distress for parents than for adolescence

Attachment

• Emotional attachment to parents remain strong
• A teen sense of well-being or happiness is more strongly correlated with the quality of their attachment to their parent then with the quality of their relationship with peers
• Good relationships with parents mean they are more likely to be academically successful and enjoy good peer relationships less likely to engage in antisocial behaviour
• Quality of attachment predicts drug use in later adolescence and early adult hood

Question 15

Discuss the issues involved in adolescents’ relationships with peers.

Answer 15

.Teens today have more aquaintences that their parents did. Over the teen years friendships became increasingly intimate and stable. Adolescences value loyalty intimacy and faithfulness in their friends and typically form friendships with peers who share their interests and are their equals with regard to social skill development. In the early years of adolescence cliques are almost entirely same-sex groups. Between 13 and 15 cliques combine into crowds that include both male and females. This is the time when teens are more susceptible to pure influences. Crowds breakdown into mixed gender clicks and then into small groups of couples

Friendships

• Technology has a major role in friendships. With most teens either texting or instant messaging your friends regularly. This leads to having a wider range of acquaintances than their parents did. They place emphasis on popularity and peer acceptance. As they get older the quality of peer relationships gets more important.
• friendships are more stable. Loyalty and faithfulness become more valued. They choose friends who share their social status. And are committed to the same activities.
• Friendships and over a difference in maturity relationship status or athletic achievements for boys.

Peer Groups
-Peer groups become stable. Adolescence choose groups that share their values attitudes behaviour and identity status.

Changes in Peer Group Structue

• cliques are made up of 4 to 6 young people who appear to be strongly attached to one another. These involved within group aggressions aimed at maintaining the route status hierarchies.
• crowds are a combination of clicks which include both male and females. This is between 13 and 15.
• Identity prototype is labelling others and oneself as belonging to one or more of these groups to create or reinforce the adolescence own identity. example gamers Emo’s popular jocks

Question 16

Explain the difference between primary and secondary aging.

Answer 16

It is important to distinguish between the unavoidable effects of primary agent and the preventable consequences of secondary ageing primary ageing is a consequence of biological factors that are largely uncontrollable secondary ageing can be influenced by lifestyle changes.

Primary aging (senescence) - is age related physical changes that have a biological basis and are university shared. Grey hair, wrinkles, changes in visual acuity

Secondary ageing - is age related changes that are due to social and environmental influences poor health habits or disease. Not experienced by all adults.

The rich living longer than the poor is caused by secondary ageing the degree of Socio economic inequality is related to the overall health of its citizens. Prosperous nations with high Socio economic inequality experience for overall health then less wealthy and egalitarian societies (japan/Sweden)

Disability adjusted life years a measure of the gap between the populations ideal and actual health levels it is derived from the number of years lost too premature death illness or injury and the number of years living with a disability. It assumes a potential life limit 82.5 years for women and 80 years for men

Health adjusted life expectancy is an estimate of life expectancy at birth it is the number of years that a newborn can expect to live in full health given current rates of morbidity and mortality.

Quality adjusted life years is a measure of how much benefit is gained and at what cost for any particular physical or mental intervention. It provides an estimate of the time a person will live at different levels of health over his remaining years of life

Question 17

Identify what changes take place in the brain in early adulthood.

Answer 17

The brain reaches a staple size and weight in early adult life. There is strong evidence that the frontal lobe of the brain do not fully mature until young adult hood. This mirrors the development of cognitive abilities such as abstract reasoning and logic planning an emotional control.

Some parts of the brain produces new neurons to replace those that die even in the brains of older apps sis stimulated by and enriched environment as well as physical exercise

Response inhibition emerges in early adult hood helps you bite your tongue or keep you from putting your foot in your mouth or choosing the answer on a multiple-choice question too fast. this may depend on the ability of the frontal lobe of the brain to regulate the limbic system the emotional part of the brain

Question 18

Identify the ways that other body systems change during early adulthood.

Answer 18

.Adults are at their peak physically between ages 20 and 40 that is a person has more muscle tissue more calcium in the bones better sensory acuity greater aerobic capacity and a more efficient immune system

Declines in Physical Functionality
-vision mid40s lens loses accommodation power poor near vision. Hearing 50 or 60 loss of ability to hear very high and very long tones. smell 40 decline in ability to detect and discriminate different smells. Taste no apparent loss. Muscles about 50 loss of muscle tissue particular and fast twitch fibres used for burst of strength or speed. Bones mid30s loss of calcium in the bones called osteoporosis. Lungs and heart 35 or 40 most functions do not show age changes but do show age changes during work or exercise. Nervous system some loss of neurons in brain gradual reduction in density of dendrites gradual decline in total brain volume and weight. Immune system adolescence loss in size of famous reduction in number and maturity of T cells. Reproductive system mid 30s increased reproductive risk and lowered fertility. Gradual decline in viable sperm beginning at about age 40 for men. Cellular elasticity gradual loss of elasticity in most cells including skin muscle and tendon. Height 40 comprehension of discs in the spine result in loss of height of 2 to 5 cm by age 80. Weight non-linear weight reaches a maximum in middle adulthood and then gradually declines in old age. Skin 40 increase in wrinkles as a result of loss of elasticity Oil secreting glands become less efficient. Hair about 50 becomes thinner and me gray

Heart and Lungs
-maximum oxygen uptake VO to Max is a measure of the body’s ability to take in and transport oxygen to various body organs this declines systematically with age during exercise verses at rest shows minimal decline.

Speed and Strength
-General loss of speed and strength

Reproductive Capacity
-risk of mid carriage and other complications are higher in a woman’s 30s and in 20s men’s reproductive capacity declines as well but more slowly as long as the reproductive organs remain disease-free they can father children throughout their lives

Immune System Functioning
-two key organs in the immune system are the thymus gland and the bone marrow these create B cells and T cells. B cells fight against external threats by producing antibodies and T cells defend against internal threats such as transplanted tissue and cancer cells. T cells decline most in number and efficiency with age. The sinus gland declined dramatically after adolescence in both size and mass. By 45 thymus has only 5 to 10% of the cellular mass it had at puberty

Question 19

Define locus of control

Answer 19

A set of beliefs about the causes of events
A person who has an internal locus of control sees herself as capable of exerting some control over what happens to her. One who has an external locus of control believes that other people or uncontrollable forces such as luck determine the future.

Question 20

Identify what habits and personal factors are associated with good health.

Answer 20

Several longitudinal studies have shown that habits and personal factors influence good health. Lifestyle factors include avoiding smoking drinking over eating under eating and a sedentary lifestyle exercising getting regular sleep and having a low BMI. Personal factors include social support self efficacy and internal locus of control and optimism.

Health Habits

• Getting physical exercise not smoking not drinking over or under eating or snacking eating breakfast and getting regular sleep
• Only snacking and eating breakfast for unrelated to mortality those with poor health habits had a higher risk of mortality and were related to disease and disability rates. A sedentary lifestyle pre-disposes people to develop in life-threatening illnesses later

Social Support
-having adequate social support lowers your risk of disease death and depression. The size and perceived adequacy of a persons social network could be correlated with the functioning of the immune system.

A Sence of Control

• self efficacy the belief in one’s ability to perform some action or to control one’s behaviour or environment. Individuals who are high in self efficacy are more likely in those who are low to follow medical advice with regards to health problems such as cardiac rehabilitation following a heart attack.
• Locus of control also affects health if you only took half of your antibiotics for an ear infection and it didn’t go away you might think that’s just my luck instead of blaming yourself if you had an external locus of control
• The tendency to make realistic attributions is what it counts. The best outcomes happen when a person is able to accurately determine which aspects of their condition are controllable and which are not.
• optimism and pessimism. The pessimist who feels helpless believes that misfortune will last a long time will undermine everything and it’s her own fault. The optimist believes that setbacks are temporary and usually caused by circumstances he is convinced that there is always some solution and that things will work out. The optimist when faced with the challenge will try harder the pessimist will give up. Optimism Can enhance medication effects and optimists show larger benefits from medication

Question 21

Describe the risks associated with sexually transmitted infections during early adulthood.

Answer 21

Sexually transmitted infections are more common among young adults then among older adults. High risk behaviours linked to STI’s include multiple sex partners unsafe sex practises and frequent to substance use.

HIV
is also more common in young adults than in other age groups. Men who have sex with men infections of HIV have levelled off. Injected drug users rate of HIV has also declined after puking in the early 2000s. However new infections are on the rise in heterosexual women and indigenous people 12% which is four times higher than non-indigenous
people
-Women are more likely to test positive between 20 and 49 versus men are more likely between 20 and 50

Prevention
-High-risk behaviours is having multiple sexual partners having sex without protection and frequently using drugs and alcohol. Many young adults are unwilling to insist on condoms and do not seek medical attention when they develop symptoms. They also do not tell their potential partners.

Question 22

List/Identify which mental disorders occur most frequently in early adulthood.

Answer 22

Rates of mental disorder are higher in early adult hood then in the middle adulthood young adults are more likely to be depressed anxious or lonely then are the middle aged. early adult hood is the period during which personality disorders and schizophrenia are usually diagnosed. addiction to alcohol and drugs peaks between 18 and 40 binge drinking is a common problem in young adult hood

Causes of mental disorders
-explanation for the differing rates of mental disorder between young adults and middle-aged adults is that early adulthood is the period in which adults have both the highest expectations and highest level of role conflict and role strain. Mental disorders tend to run in families. Some studies demonstrate links between mental disorder and disturbances in specific brain functions. The current view is that mental disorders result from an interaction of biological psychological and social cultural factors.

Anxiety and mood disorders

• most common mental disorder that affects Canadians are those that are associated with intent or prolonged fear and anxiety. These include phobias generalized anxiety disorder OCD and panic disorder This affects 12% of the Canadian population.
• major depression is next most common affecting 4 to5% of Canadians. Rates of depression are higher in early adult hood either adolescence or middle-aged. This could be because in early adult hood people must create a new attachment relationships well at the same time separating from parents or because a person has brief periods in which there alone may result in feelings of loneliness and social failure

Personality disorders

• A personality disorder is an inflexible pattern of behaviour that leads to difficulty in education occupational and social functioning.
• The most common types are antisocial (Difficulty forming emotional attachments lack empathy) paranoid (Suspicious of others behaviours or motives) histrionic (Irrational attention seeking behaviour inappropriate emotional responses sexually seductive behaviour and clothing)narcissistic (Exaggerated sense of self importance craves attention and approval exploit others lacks empathy)and borderline (Unstable moods and relationships fear of abandonment tendency to self injury highly dependent on others impulsive and reckless).
• some people exhibit behaviours that suggest a personality disorder because of stressors such as a break up of a long-term relationship. For this reason professionals have to assess an individual’s long-term levels of functioning. Professionals also have to take in mind ethic and cultural standards and physical illnesses that can cause abnormal behaviors.
• They can become less severe in the manifestations with age but remains problematic throughout the adult life. They are not easily treated because those who suffer from them seem to believe their problems result from the behaviours of others rather than their own

Schizophrenia

• A serious mental disorder characterized by disturbances of thoughts such as delusions and hallucinations.
• affects onepercent of Canadians and is characterized by confused thinking false beliefs and a false sensory experience. People with schizophrenia are frequently hospitalized and powerful antipsychotic medications are used to help regain a sense of normalcy. Many continue to experience reoccurring episodes of disturbed thinking even when medication helps them gain control over the behavior.
• Genes related to synaptic pruning may play a role in schizophrenia. The gene complement component 4 (C4) found on chromosome six is overactive causing excessive an inappropriate synaptic pruning and results in a reduced number of synaptic connections in the brain of those with schizophrenia. The result is the loss of gray matter and abnormal amounts of critical thinning

Alcohol and substance use disorders

• Rates of alcoholism and significant drug addiction peak between 18 and 40 after which they decline. They are higher in men than women.
• binge drinking a pattern of behaviour in which a man consumes five or more drinks or a woman consumes four or more drinks on one occasion at least once a month over the past year. This was found to be 31% for young adults 20 to 34 compared with 24% 30 to 44 and 6% for those over 65. Heavy drinking continues especially for those who score high on sensation seeking traits.
• Binge drinking leads to higher rates of unprotected sex physical injury driving while intoxicated in trouble with the police.
• Substance abuse is a pattern of behaviour in which a person continues to use a substance even though it interferes with psychological occupational educational and social functioning. Four factors influence be addictive potential of a drug how fast the effects of the drug or felt how pleasurable the drugs effects are how long the pleasure lasts and how much discomfort is it experienced when the truck is discontinued.

Question 23

Describe the concepts of crystallized and fluid intelligence and know the difference

Answer 23

Intellectual decline occurs quite late for well exercised abilities (crystallized abilities) such as recall of vocabulary every day memory use and normal problem-solving a measurable decline occurs earlier for so-called fluid abilities

IQ Scores
-IQ scores remain stable across middle childhood adolescence and early altered.Overall intelligence test scores actually rise in early adult hood and then remain quite constant until perhaps age 60 when they begin to decline

Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence

• Crystallized intelligence is knowledge and judgement acquired through education and experience. It consists of the sets of skills and bits of knowledge that every adult learns as part of growing up in any culture such as vocabulary and the ability to read and understand the newspaper balancing a chequebook using a computer.
• fluid intelligence is the aspect of intelligence that reflects fundamental biological processes and does not depend on specific experiences. This involves more basic abilities and depends more on the efficient functioning of the central nervous system. A common measure is a letter series test in which a participant is given a series of letters and must figure out what letter should go nextThis involves abstract reasoning. Most pests of memory and response speed also measure fluid intelligence. Fluid intelligence declines fairly steadily over adulthood beginning at 35 or 40.

It is safe to conclude that intellectual abilities show essentially no decline in early adult hood except at the very top levels of intellectual demand. in middle adult hood decline on fluid intellectual abilities becomes evident.

Question 24

Explain what Erikson meant when he described early adulthood as a crisis of intimacy versus isolation.

Answer 24

Ericsson proposed that young adults who fail to establish a stable relationship with an intimate partner or a network of friends become socially isolated.

Essential crisis of early adult hood is intimacy versus isolation. This stage is when an individual must find a life partner or supportive friends to avoid social isolation. Individuals must engage in a supportive affectionate relationship without losing one’s own sense of self. They can also allow each other some degree of independence without feeling threatened.
-individuals that reached adulthood without establishing a sense of identity would be in capable of intimacy. Barriers can be sex differences in styles of interaction

Question 25

Identify what a life structure is and how it changes.

Answer 25

Levinson’s concept of the life structure includes all of the rules that a person occupies all of her relationships in the conflicts and balance that exist among. He hypothesized that adult development includes alternating periods of stability and instability through which adults construct and refine life structures.

-A life structure is a key concept in Levinson’s theory the underlying pattern or design of a persons life at a given time which includes rules relationships and behaviour patterns. It includes all the rules the individual occupies all his relationships in the complex and balance that exists among them.
-As an adult enters a new period in which a new life structure is required there is a period of adjustment called the novice fees. In the med error phase adults become more competent at meeting the new challenges through reassessment and we organization. Stability returns in the culmination fees when adults have succeeded in creating a life structure that allows them to manage the demands of the new challenge with more confidence and less distress.
Marriage requires a new life structure.

Question 26

Describe the characteristics of emerging adulthood.

Answer 26

The parts of the brain involved in decision-making and self-control mature between the late teens and early 20s. Emerging adults use skills the choir earlier in life to accomplish developmental tasks in the academic conduct and friendship domains. New skills are required for tasks in the work and romantic domains.

• Emerging adult hood is the period from the late teens to early 20s when individuals explore options prior to committing to adult roles.
• this stage arises in cultures where individuals in their late teens face a wide variety of choices about the occupational and social roles they will occupy in adult hood. Young people do not tend to think of themselves as having fully attend adult hood until age 25. Nuro imaging shows that brain areas that underlying rational decision making impulse control and self-regulation mature during these years.
• emerging adults must address developmental tasks in five domains academic friendship conduct work and romantic. The first three skills transfer easily from adolescence to adulthood. Such as the process of adapting to rules conduct. However they must approach work and romance differently.

Question 27

Discuss the ways in which family and friends are important to young adults.

Answer 27

Young adults relationship with their parents tend to be steady and supportive even if they are less central to the young adults lives and they were at earlier ages. The quality of attachment the parents continues to predict a number of important variables in early adult hood. Each young adult create a network of relationships with family as well as with a partner and family members.

Family
-Feel emotionally close to their parents and see or talk to them regularly. Adults who live within two hours of their parents and siblings see them far more often than those who live farther away.

Friends
-pictures are friends from among those who are similar to us in education social class interests family background for family life stage cycle. Young adult friends are also overwhelmingly drawn from their own age group. Close friendships rest on mutual openness and personal disclosure.

Sex Differences in Relationship Styles
-Women have more close friends and their friendships are more intimate with more self disclosure and exchange of emotional support. Young men are more competitive they are less likely to agree with each other or to ask for or provide emotional support to each other. Adult women friends talk to each other adult men friends do things together. Women most often fill the role of kin keeper a family roll which includes responsibility for maintaining family and friendship relationships. They write the letters make the phone calls.

Question 28

Summarize what researchers know about brain function in middle age.

Answer 28

Brain volume peak stream the middle adult years and gray matter density starts to decline. The speed at which cognitive tasks are carried out begins to slow. Middle aged adults often outperform younger adults on every day tasks that require concentration and rapid judgements such as driving.

• White matter volume peak stream middle altitude. Gray matter volume continues decline it does not level off until 60. Volume of cerebrospinal fluid also increases steadily across the lifespan.
• The areas of the brain that developed last are the ones that begin to decline first the exception is language comprehension skills.
• middle aged adults respond more slowly to cognitive tasks. These tasks activate a larger area brain tissue than they do in younger adults. Middle aged adults may have less ability to control attention processs

Question 29

Describe how reproductive function changes in men and women in middle age.

Answer 29

The loss of reproductive capacity climacteric occurs very gradually in men but more rapidly in women. Menopause is a three phase process that results from a series of hormonal changes. Biopsychosocial conditions begin to adversely affect sexual activity.

Male Climacteric
-gradual slow loss of reproductive capacity. Quality of viable sperm declines beginning at 40. Testes shrink and volume of sperm declines after 60. Slow drop in testosterone levels.

Menopause

• Menopause is the stopping of monthly menstrual cycles
• Perimenopause begins after 40 and lasts 5 to 8 years. Menopause occurs in late 40s and early 50s

Menopausal Phases

• 3 stages
• premenopausal phase: late 30s. The stage during which oestrogen levels fall somewhat menstrual periods are less regular and anovulatory cycles (no ovum released) begin to occur. Dramatic drop in progesterone levels but high levels of estrogen.
• perimenopause phase: The stage of menopause during which oestrogen and progesterone levels are a Radick menstrual cycles may be very irregular and women begin to experience symptoms such as hot flashes. (Hot flashes occur when women try to sleep making sleep deprivation the main cause of mental confusion and emotional instability)
• postmenopausal phase: Last stage of menopause where a woman has no menstrual periods for at least a year. Oestrogen and progesterone drop to consistently low levels. Breasts become less firm genitals and uterus shrink vagina becomes shorter

Psychological Effects of Menopause
-Depressed and negative moods can actually be attributed two outside life stressors. Bad symptoms can trigger negative moods and depression. Sleep deprivation contributes to this.

Sexual Activity
-middle aged adults remain sexually active. Chronic conditions lead to decline in sexual activity.

Question 30

Describe what osteoporosis is and what factors are associated with it.

Answer 30

Osteoporosis is the loss of bone mass with age resulting in more brittle and porous bones.

This begins at age 30 but is accelerated by menopause in women. Leads to increased risk of fractures beginning in age 50 for women. In women bone loss is linked directly to estrogen and progesterone levels.

Strategies
The loss of bones is lessened by taking replacement hormones.
They can get enough calcium during early adult hood so that peak levels of bone mast are robust. Throw adult life women can get regular exercise particularly weight bearing exercise. Bone mineral density tests can identify osteoporosis long before it causes serious damage to bones once diagnosed women can take bone building medications such alendronate sodium.

Question 31

Describe how vision and hearing change in middle age.

Answer 31

Thickening of the lens of the eye with accompanying loss of elasticity reduces visual acuity noticeably in the 40s or 50s. Hearing loss is more gradual

Presbyopia is normal loss of visual acuity with ageing especially the ability to focus the eyes on near objects. Slightly pigmented material accumulates on the lens which reduces a persons overall sensitivity to light waves since there’s less light reaching the retina. Harder for the muscles surrounding the eye to change the shape of the lens.

Presbycusis Normal loss of hearing with ageing especially of high frequency tones. Hearing loss accelerates after the age of 50. Some common conditions are excessive hair wax chronic fluid in the ear or abnormal growth of the bones of the inner ear. On average it’s normally lifelong exposure to excessive noise.

Question 32

Review mid-life health trends.

Answer 32

Chronic illness and death rates rise notably toward the end of middle altered. The two major causes of death in middle adulthood are cancer and heart disease.

Health related quality of life is a measure of physical mental and social health. This remains high and stable till roughly 79 then starts to decline.

disease related death rates increase. There is a causal connection between longevity and level of physical activity.

Question 33

Identify what factors contribute to cancer. (see especially Table 15.2)

Answer 33

Risk factors for cancer include smoking obesity and an inactive lifestyle. The role of a high fat diet has been debated but more evidence supports the hypothesis that such a diet contributes to the risk. Recent research shows that several cancers are caused by infectious agents viral and bacteria

Most common cancers in Canada are lung cancer colorectal cancer and breast cancer

Smoking increases risk of lung cancer. Being overweight is increased risk for several cancers. An activity is associated with higher rates of colon cancer. Diet the results are unclear but a high-fat diet is linked to risks of some cancers high fibre diet appear to be protective for some cancers. Have you drinking is associated with cancers of the digestive system. There is some genetic component with nearly every cancer. HPV is linked to cervical cancer. STI‘s are responsible for cancers of the mouth nose and throat. Viral infections are linked to cancer‘s.

Question 34

Summarize the risks of cardiovascular disease in middle age. (Define cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis)

Answer 34

Cardiovascular disease is not a part of ageing it is a disease for which there is no known risk factors including smoking high blood pressure high blood cholesterol obesity and a high fat diet.

Cardiovascular disease is a set of disease processes in the heart and circulatory system.

Atherosclerosis is the narrowing of the arteries caused by deposits of plaque a fatty substance made of fats cholesterol calcium fibrin and others.

Arteries become completely locked producing a heart attack if the blockage is in the coronary arteries or a stroke if the blockage is in the brain

General risk Factors

• Smoking is a major risk blood pressure above 144 day Estella pressure above 90 linked to higher risk. Some increased whisk risk with any weight above the normal range risk is greater for those who wait 20% more. Cholesterol shows a clear risk with elevated levels of low density lipoprotein’s. In active adults have twice the risk. For diet high fat low fibre diet increase his risk antioxidant such as vitamin EC or beta carotene may decrease risk. Moderate intake of alcohol decrease his risk heavy drinking we can start muscles. Those with first-degree relatives with CVD have 10 times the risk those who inherit a June for a particular protein are twice as likely to have CVD
• 1/3 of Canadians older than 20 have three more risk factors for CVD.

Personality and Health

• Type a personality pattern is a tape associated with a greater risk of coronary heart disease. It includes competitive achievement striving a sense of time urgency and sometimes hostility or aggressiveness. They are perpetually comparing themselves to others
• type B personality people were thought to be less hurried more laid-back less competitive and less hostile.
• Type A had increased levels of cholesterol
• the most consistent link between CVD was with hostility.
• Type D (distress)personality People exhibit a chronic or pattern of emotional distress combined with a tendency to suppress negative emotions. These people have four times the risk of death another has other patients suffering from CVD

Question 35

Identify some important differences in the health of middle-aged men and women.

Answer 35

Women tend to live longer than men but are more likely to suffer from chronic illnesses. In early adult hood the gender difference can be attributed to health problems associated with child bearing. The difference cannot be explained in Larry ages.

Women recover more readily from heart attacks because of gender differences in the heart itself and women’s greater tendency to get follow up care.

Women are also more likely to suffer from non-fatal chronic ailments such as arthritis. Chronic pain is the characteristic of arthritis therefore living with chronic pain affects their general sense of well-being

Question 36

Discuss mental health trends in middle age.

Answer 36

Middle aged adults have lower rates of mental health problems of virtually every kind than young adults. Self-esteem peaks at about age 60.2/3 of adults diagnosed with serious mental health disorders continue to have difficulties in middle age.

Alcohol use Disorders
Alcoholism usually starts at younger ages but often remains undiagnosed until middle age.
-alcoholism is physical and psychological dependence on alcohol. Long term drinking damages every organ in the body. Also damage to brain causing impairments in memory. This is reversible if drinking is stopped. A drug acamprosate can be prescribed to help with drawl symptoms.

Question 37

Describe the relationship between health and cognitive functioning.

Answer 37

Some studies suggest that differences in health contribute to variations in cognitive functioning among middle aged adults. Exercise clearly affects the physical health of middle aged adults and has been shown to help maintain and improve cognitive functioning.

Characteristics linked to increased or decreased risk of heart disease and cancer are also linked to the rate of change for the maintenance of intellectual skills. Participants with some kind of cardiovascular disease showed earlier and larger declines on intelligent tests. Increased physical Activity leads to improved cognition and can moderate executive control processes and working memory. Cardiovascular resistance and coordination exercises can improve various cognitive processes.

Question 38

Define the generativity vs stagnation stage (Erikson)

Answer 38

Ericsson proposed that the primary developmental task is to acquire a sense of generativity through mentoring younger individuals. Valiant proposed that the stage of career consolidation precedes Ericksons generativity stage and that the stage of keeper of the meeting follows it.

Generativity versus stagnation stage

• Middle aged adults find meeting in contributing to the development of younger individuals.
• Generativity is a sense that one is making a valuable contribution to society by bringing up children or mentoring younger people in someway
• Those who don’t develop this suffer from pervading sense of stagnation and personal impoverishment and indulge themselves as if they were their own one and only child.

Research on Generatively

• contrary to what his theory would predict the oldest group of participants 66 sided generative concerns as being important just as frequently as the middle age group did. Generativity is more prominent theme middle-aged women than men. Still more important than in early adulthood
• Positively linked to satisfaction in life and work altruistic behaviour successful marriage close friendships and emotional well-being.
• Cultures that encourage respect for elders have higher levels of generative acts and well-being in older citizens.

Vaillant’s revision of Eriksons Theory

• said there was a stage between intimacy and generativity called career consolidation. The outcome of this phase is the creation of a new social network for which the middle aged adults primary work serves as a hub. Involvement in this network helps the individual meet psychosocial needs. These include contentment compensation competence and commitment.
• After generativity versus stagnation is stage called keeper of the meeting. In this phase adults focus on preserving the institutions and values of the culture that they believe will benefit future generations.

Question 39

Explain how the concept of the mid-life crisis evolved into the life events perspective of middle age.

Answer 39

Earlier models of the mid life crisis don’t seem to fit the more variable life courses with you today. A life event approach to understanding to unique stresses of middle-age is more useful.

Midlife crisis the term was coined in 1960. Midway between completing school and death there was a change in people. Any perceived gap difference between what one had accomplished and where they were expected to be coupled with the realization that only so much time was left was thought to create a sense of urgency and having just one last chance at a fulfilled life. The realization of the inevitability of death. Noticeable body ageing children leaving home deceased parents.This seemed to be a universal phenomenon that hit people during their 40s.

Now major life events timing has changed. People have different family arrangements at various times and hit milestones later in life if at all. Researchers can find no distinct age at which the midlife crisis occurs now.

We all go through Ericksons psychosocial crisis is the not in the same sequence or at the same time. Adults generally followed 105 life pathways the meandering life (based on low sense of identity) the straighten narrow path (predictability and routine) the downward slope (life started good then bad decisions) the triumphant trail (early life hard but resilience so it was overcome) the authentic Road (self exa,Insteon amd redirection towards purpose)

A Life Events Approch

• Theoretical perspective on middle adulthood that focusses on normative and none normative events and how adults in this age group respond to them
• Lost middle aged adults experience the loss of a parent or must deal with declines and parents ability. Nature of parent child relationship or work stress. Many of these stressors last for sometime.
• Role conflict is any situation in which two or more rules are at least partially Incompatible either because they call for different behaviours or because their separate demands add up to more hours than there are in the day. Example either helping senior parents or going to teenaged sons football game. Role Strain is when their own qualities or skills do not measure up to the demands of the role.

Question 40

Understand that partnership relationships often change in middle adulthood.

Answer 40

Marital satisfaction is typically higher at mid life then it is earlier. This higher level of satisfaction appears to be due primarily to a decline in problems and conflicts.

Marital stability and satisfaction increases as conflicts over child rearing and other matters decline. The number of friends they share increase. Marital satisfaction may come from increased sense of control. They employ skilled diplomacy that involves confrontation of the spouse about an issue followed by a period during which the confronting spouse works to restore harmony.

Question 41

Describe how multigenerational caregiving and caregiver burden affects middle-aged adults’ lives.

Answer 41

Middle aged adults have significant family interactions both up and down the generational change the two-way responsibilities of multi generational caregiving can create a midlife squeeze or a sandwich generation. It is common for middle-aged Canadians to take on the caregiver role for an ageing parent. Those who do report a feeling of considerable burden and increased stress particularly if the parent being cared for suffers from some form of dementia. Still most caregivers report they are coping very well.

Sandwich Generation

• Middle age adults who are caring for both elderly parents and young adult children at the same time. (Multi generational caregiver) Nearly 30% of caregivers are in this position
• One and three Canadians care for a senior and half report experiencing difficulties. For example emotionally demanding time consuming leaving them with little time for self or family producing stress and fatigue.
• Caregiver burden the cumulative negative affects of caring for an elderly or disabled person.
• High intensity sandwich generation caregivers incur extra expenses are absent from work more often and have a reduced quality of life in terms of cancelled holiday plans reduced social activities and less time for their own families.

Question 42

Review the research on personality continuity and change in mid-life

Answer 42

.The big five personality traits and other aspects of personality are correlated across early and middle adulthood. There is evidence that a change towards higher neuroticism and lower conscientiousness in middle age is linked to poor health and well-being.

CANOE
conscientiousness a need for order in the environment agreeableness ease with which person gets along with others neuroticism emotional negativity and pessimism and irritability openness willingness to try new things extroversion social ability

The big five are stable from childhood to old age. Openness extraversion and neuroticism decline as we age. Agreeableness increases and conscientiousness increases till 70 where it begins to show decline.

Many individuals become less negative overtime. Tolerance for risk taking and impulsivity decline with age.

High extraversion and conscientiousness meant less likely to feel strained by work related stressors. High and neuroticism are less able to cope with on the job problems. Hi neuroticism more likely to have stress related conditions such as chronic fatigue syndrome.