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METHODS Flashcards

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1
Q

What is operationalisation?

A

Specifying precisely how the IV is manipulated and how the DV is measured.

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2
Q

What are extraneous variables and what are the 2 types?

A

Variables which, if not controlled, may affect the DV.

  1. Situational e.g time of day
  2. Participant e.g. age
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3
Q

What are demand characteristics and what are their possible effects?

A

Clues revealing the study’s purpose.

Participants may display participant reactivity; either do what they think is expected (‘please you’) or the opposite (‘screw you’).

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4
Q

What are standardised instructions and how do they relate to investigator effects?

A

Instructions read out to each participant telling them exactly what to do.

Control for investigator effects as no opportunity to treat participants differently.

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5
Q

What is independent groups design?

A

Participants allocated to different conditions of the IV.

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6
Q

What is repeated measures design?

A

All participants take part in all conditions.

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7
Q

What is matched pairs design?

A

Participants matched on variable that may affect the DV; one of each pair assigned to conditions.

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8
Q

How should participants be allocated to conditions in an independent groups design and why?

A

Randomly e.g. give each participant a number and use a generator to decide which participant in each condition.

Reduces chance of participant variables confounding results.

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9
Q

What are order effects and how are they controlled?

A

Order in which participants do the conditions can confound the effect of the IV on the DV e.g. practice.

Counterbalancing; half of participants do condition A first, and half condition B. Order effect should affect each condition equally.

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10
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

Researcher manipulates IV in a natural setting.

e.g. Obedience levels to confederate in uniform vs plain clothes (BICKMAN).

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11
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

Researcher takes advantage in a change in the IV occurring naturally.

e.g. Obedience levels before and after a terrorist incident.

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12
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A

IV is a pre-existing difference between participants.

e.g. Obedience levels in men and women.

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13
Q

What is a lab experiment?

A

Researcher manipulates IV in a controlled setting.

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14
Q

What is meant by ‘sample’?

A

Group who take part in a research investigation.

Drawn from and presumed to be representative of target population.

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15
Q

What is meant by ‘bias’ in sampling?

A

Certain groups over/under represented within the sample selected.

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16
Q

When do ethical issues arise in studies?

A

When there is a conflict between the rights of the participants and the goals of the researcher to produce valid and worthwhile data.

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17
Q

What is the BPS code of ethics?

A

Produced by British Psychology Society.

Instructs psychologists on acceptable behaviour towards participants and their responsibilities.

Built around respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.

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18
Q

What is the aim of a pilot study?

A

Check the procedure, materials and measuring equipment/methods work well.

Issues can be changed, saving time and money.

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19
Q

When can pilot studies be used?

A

Experiments

Self report methods such as questionnaires to reword ambiguous questions if misleading.

Observational studies to check coding systems and train observers.

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20
Q

What are the 2 types of observations and what are their strengths?

A

Controlled = structured and designed situation.
Easier to record behaviour.

Naturalistic = setting within which behaviour would normally occur.
Higher ecological validity as real world behaviour.

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21
Q

What are the 2 (4) methods of observation?

A

Covert: Watching participants without their knowledge and consent.

Overt: Watching participants with their knowledge and consent.

Participant: Researcher becomes part of the group and interacts with the participants.

Non-participant: Researcher stays separate from the participants.

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22
Q

What are the strengths of the 2 (4) methods of observation?

A

Covert: Removes ppt reactivity; all behaviour natural.

Overt: More ethical as participants give informed consent.

Participant: Increases insight.

Non-participant: Researcher stays objective.

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23
Q

What are behavioural categories and their features?

A

Used to break down behaviour into observable and measurable components (operationalise).

Each category precisely defined to eliminate subjectivity.

Categories do not overlap.

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24
Q

What is a Likert Scale?

A

Respondent indicates agreement by selecting 1 of 5 statements (from strongly disagree to strongly agree.

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25
Q

How might an interview be conducted?

A

Interviewer may take notes or record interview and analyse it later.

Interviews in quiet room away from other people.

Begin with neutral questions to establish a rapport.

Assure answers confidential.

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26
Q

How does a correlation study differ from an experiment?

A

Does not involve manipulation of the IV and measurement of the DV.

No IV and DV but co-variables.

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27
Q

What are the 2 strengths of correlational research?

A

Quick and economical so useful as a preliminary tool before committing to an experiment.

Involves analysing real world data so has good ecological validity.

28
Q

What is primary data and what are its strengths and weaknesses?

A

Information obtained first-hand by the researcher from an experiment, self-report study or observation.

Tailored specifically for purpose but takes time and money to collect.

29
Q

What is secondary data and what are its strengths and weaknesses?

A

Information already collected by somebody else, predating the current research.

Easy to get but not tailored to researcher’s needs.

30
Q

What is a meta-analysis?

A

Process of combining results from many studies to provide an overall view.

May involve a qualitative review of conclusions and/or a quantitative analysis producing an effect size.

31
Q

What are descriptive statistics?

A

Use of graphs, tables and summary statistics (measures of central tendency/dispersion) to identify trends and analyse sets of data.

32
Q

What is standard deviation and what does it show?

A

Sophisticated measure of dispersion.

Tells us how much the scores deviate from the mean.

Shows the extent of individual differences in performance within each condition.

33
Q

What are the differences between a bar chart and a histogram?

A

Bar chart for discrete data, histogram for continuous.

Gaps between bars in bar chart whereas touch in a histogram.

Condition along x axis in bar chart, score for histogram.

34
Q

What information do you need to use the table of critical values?

A

Significance level

Number of participants in the study (or degrees of freedom),

Whether the hypothesis is one tailed or two tailed.

35
Q

What are 3 aims of peer review?

A

Decides whether to allocate funding to research.

Ensures published research of high quality; sound methodology and appropriate analysis.

Suggest improvements or conclude research flawed and inappropriate for publication.

36
Q

What are the steps in peer review?

A

Scientists study something.

Scientists write up their results and conclusions.

Journal editor receives article and sends it out for peer review (OR may send comments to scientists who revise article).

Peer reviewers assess article and provide feedback.

If meets standards. it is published in a journal.

37
Q

What are 2 examples of research with economic implications?

A

Development of treatment for mental illnesses.

Research into role of the father in attachment.

38
Q

How can research into mental illness affect the economy?

A

Improvement of drugs and psychological therapies.

Cause improvement in symptoms.

People can manage condition and return to work.

Boosts income, benefiting them economically.

Spend more, increasing demand for goods and creating jobs for others.

39
Q

How can research into the role of the father affect the economy?

A

Shows both parents equally capable of providing emotional support for healthy upbringing.

Promotes flexible working arrangements and shared child care responsibility.

Parents maximise income and contribute to economy.

40
Q

Why should you draw a scattergram before concluding from the correlation coefficient that their is no relationship between the variables?

A

Correlation coefficient only applies to linear relationships.

Covariables might have a curvilinear relationship e.g. effect of anxiety on recall.

41
Q

What is a case study and what are its features?

A

Detailed study of an individual, group or event.

Uses non-experimental research methods to produce qualitative data.

Longitudinal.

Focused on unusual circumstances.

42
Q

What is content analysis?

A

Studying behaviour indirectly by examining communications.

May come from research (interview transcript) or be produced naturally (TV advert).

43
Q

How does content analysis relate to quantitative and qualitative data?

A

Data to be analysed qualitative.

Quantitative CA involves tallying up data.

Qualitative CA involves thematic analysis; meaningful themes identified and not converted into numbers.

44
Q

What is coding in quantitative content analysis?

A

Deciding on categories and using them to analyse the material.

45
Q

What does thematic analysis involve?

A

Divide transcript into ‘meaning units’ and code (give label) important ideas.

Pick out overall themes e.g. regularly crop up.

46
Q

What is 1 strength and 1 weakness of content analysis?

A

Most material already exists in public domain so no need for informed consent.

Involves subjective interpretation so risks researcher bias (especially in qualitative CA).

47
Q

What is reliability?

A

How consistent the findings from an investigation or device are.

48
Q

How does the test-retest method work?

A

Each participant takes the same test on different occasions.

Should be a strong positive correlation between the sets of scores (similar).

49
Q

How does the inter-observer method work?

A

2 observers do a pilot study to check applying the behavioural categories in the same way.

If differ, discuss and modify the categories.

Independently observe the ‘real’ study and correlate the observations to assess reliability.

50
Q

How can the reliability of an observation be improved?

A

Make sure the behavioural categories are operationalised, non-overlapping and cover all possible behaviours.

Assess inter-observer reliability before conducting the observation.

51
Q

What are 2 ways of assessing internal validity?

A

Face validity

Each participant takes new test and established test; a strong correlation (0.8+) shows concurrent validity,

52
Q

How can you improve the validity of experimental research?

A

Use a control group to ensure change in DV caused by manipulating IV.

Standardise procedures to minimise participant reactivity and investigator effects.

Single-blind reduces demand characteristics, double-blind reduces investigator effects as well.

53
Q

What 3 questions do you ask when deciding which statistical test to use?

A

Difference or correlation?

Unrelated (independent groups) or related (repeated measures/matched pairs) design?

Level of data nominal, ordinal or interval?

54
Q

How do you decide on the level of data?

A

Nominal? Data not a number.

Ordinal? Data a number but no precise scale with equal intervals.

Interval? Data a number and a precise scale with equal intervals.

55
Q

What are the 3 criteria for a parametric test?

A

Interval data.

Data from a normally distributed population.

Similar dispersion of scores in each condition.

56
Q

What is a type 1 error and what is the link with significant level?

A

Incorrectly accepting alternative hypothesis - false positive.

Most likely if SL too lenient e.g. 10%.

57
Q

What is a type 2 error and what is the link with significance level?

A

Incorrectly rejecting the alternative hypothesis - false negative.

Most likely if SL too stringent e,g, 1%.

58
Q

What are the sections of a psychological report?

A 
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
Referencing
59
Q

What is in the abstract?

A

Short summary of the main elements of the report.

60
Q

What is in the introduction?

A

Sets out background research and links it to aim and hypothesis of study.

61
Q

What is in the method section?

A 
Research method
Design
Sample
Apparatus
Procedure
Ethics
62
Q

What is in the results section?

A

Descriptive statistics - tables showing measures of central tendency and dispersion and graphs.

Inferential statistics - reasons for test choice, calculated and critical values, significance level, whether alternative hypothesis accepted or rejected.

63
Q

What is in the discussion section?

A

Verbal explanation of how findings relate to background research.

Limitations of investigation and how to overcome them.

Study’s real world application.

64
Q

Why is replicability important?

A

If replicated, less likely to be a type 1 error.

Replication of lab finding in field experiment gives ecological validity.

Replication with different participants gives population validity.

Findings more likely to be valid making the theories they support more trustworthy.

65
Q

What is a paradigm and how does it come about?

A

Shared set of assumptions and methods within a scientific discipline.

Paradigm emerges from pre-science stage where differing views exist.

Once it emerges, discipline has moved into normal science stage; scientists reluctant to change the norm.

66
Q

What leads to a paradigm shift?

A

Researchers question the paradigm; the revolutionary science stage.

Evidence emerges contradicting the paradigm and it changes to accommodate new evidence.

67
Q

How would you use paradigm in relation to psychology?

A

Various explanations for the same behaviour; no dominant paradigm so psychology in pre-science stage.

Several paradigm shifts already e.g. Wundt’s behaviourism from Watson’s introspection.

Psychology Studies (11 decks)

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