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sociolgy 2 year > Method revision notes > Flashcards

Method revision notes Flashcards

1
Q

Validity

A

The extent to which the data shows a true picture of the participants lives / social reality.

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2
Q

what reduces/low in validity

A

Hawthorne effect, interview effect, researcher bias, social desirability, quantitative methods, misinterpretation, going native

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3
Q

What is high in validity

A

Rapport, verstehen, respondent validation

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4
Q

primary data

A

Collected by the researcher firsthand, new research and data

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5
Q

secondary data

A

Previously collected data analysed or compared/averaged

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6
Q

operationalisation

A

This is the process by which the researcher identifies / defines concepts / each variable that they want to study and make it measurable.

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7
Q

respondent validation

A

This is when the researcher gives the participants a chance to look at the findings and results and then they can give their feedback on if this is how they think they should be perceived.

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8
Q

Verstehen

A

The ability to develop empathic understanding that allows the researcher to understand
and empathise the behaviour from the participants point of view

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9
Q

Reflexivity

A

This is when the researcher reflects on their research project to make sure that they are being objective and are detached from the participants and their situation. This is most important in ethnographic studies.

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10
Q

Rapport

A

The ability of the researcher/interviewer to relate to others which allows a strong level of trust and understanding which could lead to more honest and open results and findings.

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11
Q

Hawthorne effect

A

This is when the research population change their behaviour only because they know they’re being observed. This can lessen the validity of the research.

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12
Q

interviewer bias

A

This is when the interviewers characteristics can affect the validity of the results. This is often mainly linked to their physical or social characteristics.

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13
Q

Triangulation

A

When one or more method is used to check the validity or reliability of the results

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14
Q

Methodological pluralism

A

When more than one method is used to get a broader and more full understanding of the social life that’s being studied. E.g. lots of methods used in one study

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15
Q

Random

A

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. REPRESENTATIVE

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16
Q

systematic (random)

A

Every ‘nth’ number of the target population is selected for the sample. REPRESENTATIVE

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17
Q

stratified (random)

A

To obtain this type of sample, different subgroups in the target population are identified; then people are randomly selected from these subgroups in proportion to their numbers in the target population. REPRESENTATIVE

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18
Q

Snowball (non-random)

A

One contact will recruit other participants to get involved in the research. This method is often used by sociologists for hard to reach groups. NON-REPRESENTATIVE

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19
Q

volunteer

A

When a sample is gathered through participants putting themselves forward to be studied. Respondents are found through advertising in a paper/shop window/internet etc. NON-REPRESENTATIVE

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20
Q

purposive (non-random)

A

The researcher has a clear idea of the sample they want, they will pick participants that meet their criteria, choosing individuals or cases that fit the nature of their research. NON-REPRESENTATIVE

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21
Q

Quota (non-random)

A

This is when they work out how many of each category in the target population they need and then they go out and find the limit they need for each group and stop when they’ve got enough for each quota. NON-REPRESENTATIVE

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22
Q

Triangulation PET

A

PRACTICAL: Increases accuracy of the research data, therefore the validity as a more true reflection of the social reality is likely to be gained.

ETHICAL: Encourages reflexivity (self evaluation) checking researchers are as objective and value free as possible increasing the validity as a more honest and less bias insight is gained.

THEORETICAL: Realists would prefer the use of triangulation because they believe that the purpose of research is to obtain data to test one theory against another theory. They would see this method as ‘fit for purpose’. Triangulation is preferable to Realists as research approaches as is can gain both a combination of qualitative and quantitative data and/or means data can be cross checked easily

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23
Q

Methodological pluralism PET

A

PRACTICAL: Each method used can provide a different understanding of society, therefore using a variety of methods can allow for a wider range of issues to be addressed increasing validity as a deeper insight into the group is gained.

ETHICAL: The advantages and disadvantages of the methods used can counterbalance each other increasing validity.

THEORETICAL: Realists would prefer the use of methodological pluralism because they believe that the purpose of research is to gain a full insight into the group being researched. Methodological Pluralism is preferable to Realists as research approaches as is can gain both a combination of qualitative and quantitative data and/or means data can be cross checked easily

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24
Q

Questionnaires Strengths PET

A

PRACTICAL:
- Less time consuming -improves the generalisability -wider claims can be made.

ETHICAL:

  • informed consent
  • increase validity

THEORETICAL:

  • this method replicable
  • reliable meaning -Positivists would like this method.
25
Q

Questionnaires weakness PET

A

PRACTICAL:

  • Questionnaires can be subject to low response rates
  • affect the generalisability
  • affected wider claims might not be -people giving socially desirable answers , affect the validity of the data.

ETHICAL:

  • sensitive nature some respondents may feel some form of emotional harm
  • lied to give socially desirable responses.
  • impact on the validity as it does not give a true insight.

THEORETICAL:
Due to the standardised nature of questions the respondent may select the nearest answer that describes their situation. The respondents cannot explain meanings behind their answers leading to Interpretivists not liking this method as it is low in validity.

26
Q

structured interviews Strengths

A

PRACTICAL:

  • data collected is likely to be objective, numerical
  • increases reliability as it is replicable.

ETHICAL:

  • The interviewer can explain the aims and objectives of the research
  • participants to feel more comfortable and rapport can be built up.
  • This encourages informed consent to be given.

THEORETICAL:

  • pre-coded responses numerical data can be easily collated
  • data can not be researchers own biases
  • Positivists would like this method, reliability.
27
Q

structured interviews Weakness

A

PRACTICAL: Interviews can be time consuming so only a small sample therefore decreasing representativeness and generalisability as wider claims cannot be made.

ETHICAL: Interviewer effect can decrease the validity of the research as the respondent may feel they have to provide socially desirable responses. This is because they may face emotional harm if they feel uncomfortable.

THEORETICAL: Positivists would not like the flexibility of this method and would argue that if rapport builds then the interviewer can become biased and lose objectivity and therefore impacting on the reliability of the research data and findings, as it makes it difficult to replicate.

28
Q

unstructured interviews strengths

A

PRACTICAL: These interviews are pre-arranged therefore a higher response rate is common which increases representativeness of the research. Also they are flexible, allowing for an exploration of other issues which means validity is improved as true verstehen can be gained.

ETHICAL: Rapport can be built between the researcher and participant meaning that a conversational flow can occur meaning they would not feel emotional harm. This means the participants are generally more comfortable, meaning they will answer honestly which increases the validity.

THEORETICAL: This method leads to lots of in-depth data collection as the interviewer can probe and ask extra questions. This dramatically increases the validity meaning Interpretivists would like this method.

29
Q

Unstructured interviews weakness

A

PRACTICAL:

  • time consuming so only a small sample
  • decreasing representativeness
  • decreasing generalisability as wider claims cannot be made.

ETHICAL:

  • decrease the validity of the research as the respondent may feel they have to provide socially desirable responses rather than answering honestly.
  • This is because they may face emotional harm if they feel uncomfortable.

THEORETICAL:

  • Positivists would not like the lack of structure of this method
  • rapport builds then the interviewer can become biased and lose objectivity
  • decreasing reliability of the research data and findings, as it becomes difficult to replicate.
30
Q

focus / group interviews weakness

A

PRACTICAL: The questions and themes set out will be tailored to specific group needs creating a relaxed and informal setting which increases the validity as the participants feel more comfortable to answer honestly. They are also pre-arranged which increases response rate and therefore representativeness.

ETHICAL: Rapport can be built up with the participants, meaning they would not feel emotional harm due to the relaxed environment. This means that the respondents will again provide more rich and valid data.

THEORETICAL: Interpretivist would favour this method as rich and in-depth discussions are encouraged which increases validity.

31
Q

focus / group interviews weakness

A

PRACTICAL:

  • Mutpiple respodenta will give varying accounts and opions discussed
  • lowering the reliability

ETHICAL:

  • Respondents may feel uncomfortable if sensitive topics arise or is other respondent dominate the discussions.
  • emotional harm
  • decreases the validity( people may not want to talk about it) .

THEORETICAL:
If rapport builds then the interviewer can become biased and lose objectivity and therefore reliability is decreased and Positivists do not like it.

32
Q

statistical data strengths

A

PRACTICAL: Data recording and analysis can be difficult as all respondents will give varying accounts and opinions on the topics being discussed therefore lowering the reliability as this is not an easily replicable method.

ETHICAL: Respondents may feel uncomfortable if sensitive topics arise or is other respondent dominate the discussions. This could lead to others feeling uncomfortable, in some extreme cases they may also suffer emotional harm, therefore meaning that they do not input as they naturally would which decreases the validity.

THEORETICAL: If rapport builds then the interviewer can become biased and lose objectivity and therefore reliability is decreased and Positivists do not like it.

33
Q

stastistical data weaknesses

A

PRACTICAL: They may not fully represent the whole picture of what is being researched – No in-depth data can be gained meaning that validity is decreased as a true insight into the participants lives cannot be gained.

ETHICAL: Official statistics are open to political abuse, which can be manipulated to look better, for instance to give a good impression of the government’s economic policies, meaning that the validity is affected. They could also lead to harm as some groups may be represented badly

THEORETICAL: Statistics are quantitative, and tell us nothing about the stories behind the statistics, interpretivists and feminists would therefore not like this method as a result They would state that the research is low in validity as no verstehen is gained.

34
Q

longitudinal studies strengths

A

PRACTICAL:

  • Gains an insight into a group and trends over a period of time
  • increasing validity as a more in-depth insight is gained.

ETHICAL:

  • Regular contact with the sample can create trust and rapport
  • increasing validity as they will feel more comfortable (and less risk of emotional harm) leading to more honest behaviour.

THEORETICAL:

  • Positivists favour the statistical/numerical data
  • increases the reliability of the data
35
Q

longitudinal studies weaknesses

A

PRACTICAL: High ‘drop-out’ rate as people get bored, move address, school and change friendship groups. Tracking the sample can be complex which reduces representativeness and generalisability.

ETHICAL: Because the sample will be part of the research process on more than one occasion, informed consent and protection from harm may change, this reduces the validity.

THEORETICAL: Interpretivists would be less likely to use longitudinal research because it often provides quantitative data to assess patterns and trends which is low in validity as deeper explanations are not gained.

36
Q

content analysis strengths

A

PRACTICAL: This is a cheap method to carry out meaning that it could be carried out again by researchers aiming to replicate the initial method. This means that the reliability of the research is high.

ETHICAL: No participants are required, therefore meaning that ethical considerations and guidelines set out by the BSA are easy to follow. This can again increase the reliability as this method is easily replicable.

THEORETICAL: Quantitative content analysis is regarded as reliable as it can be carried out again and data can be cross-checked. Therefore Positivists will favour this method.

37
Q

content analysis weaknesses

A

PRACTICAL: This is often a time-consuming method e.g. watching films to count a sign/symbol/word etc. This means that it is not easily replicable for some which means although this method is not low in reliability it can be reduced.

ETHICAL: This can be a subjective approach at times and some sociologists could analyse text out of context. This means that the group/s being researched are not presented fully/fairly which impacts on the representativeness and could cause emotional harm.

THEORETICAL: Interpretivists would state that statistics provide little information about human stories or behaviour as no meanings/feelings/opinions are given. This decreases the validity.

38
Q

overt non - participant observation

A

PRACTICAL: The researcher is not involved in the group meaning that it is a fairly easy and cost effective method. It also means they are less likely to become too involved which increases the validity as a more honest and unbiased insight can be gained.

ETHICAL: As the participants know they are being observed informed consent is likely to be gained, this increases the validity as the participants will be more informed and should feel more comfortable.

THEORETICAL: Interpretivist would favour this method as rich and in-depth insight is gained which increases validity.

39
Q

overt non- participant weakness

A

PRACTICAL: The researcher is more distant from the group and thus may not get a full, rich picture of behaviour. This more superficial insight means means that less valid data would be collected.

ETHICAL: Empathy and understanding may be reduced if the participants feel uncomfortable being observed. They may not display their true behaviour and could feel some form of emotional harm if they feel this way. This reduces the validity of the findings as behavior may not be true.

THEORETICAL: Positivists would not like this method as it is difficult to replicate, especially if there isn’t a coding scheme, meaning that reliability is reduced.

40
Q

covert non-participant strengths

A

PRACTICAL:

  • The researcher is not involved in the group meaning that it is a fairly easy and cost effective method
  • increases the validity and unbiased insight can be gained.

ETHICAL:

  • unlikely to influence the group studied
  • less risk of harm if they are not fully involved in the group
  • group is less likely to change their behaviour
  • increasing validity of the data collected.

THEORETICAL:

  • Interpretivists would favour this method
  • in-depth insight is gained -increases validity.
41
Q

covert non-participant weakness

A

PRACTICAL: The researcher is more distant from the group and thus may not get a full, rich picture of behaviour. This more superficial insight means means that less valid data would be collected.

ETHICAL: This method holds real ethical issues as no informed consent can be given if the participants do not know they are being observed. This research is unethical and validity could be reduced as the researcher could hold prejudices/researcher bias towards the group.

THEORETICAL: The research would be hard to replicate reducing reliability. Positivists would not like this method as a result of this.

42
Q

overt participant observation strengths

A

PRACTICAL: The participants know that they are being observed and allows the researcher to research them in-depth if they are part of their lives. This will increase the validity of the research as a detailed insight into the group is gained.

ETHICAL: The researcher can be fully immersed in the group to be studied and experience verstehen / understanding. This can mean that a really true insight into groups can be gained. As the participants know they are being researched BSA ethical guidelines are followed and informed consent is likely to be gained, this increases the validity as the participants will be more informed and should feel more comfortable.

THEORETICAL: Interpretivist would favour this method as rich and in-depth insight is gained which increases validity.

43
Q

overt participant observation weakness

A

PRACTICAL: As the participants know they are being observed the Hawthorne Effect may occur as they may change their behaviour due to wanted to act in a socially desirable manner. This can affect validity as their true behaviour and reactions may not be observed.

ETHICAL: Empathy and understanding may be reduced if the participants feel uncomfortable being observed. They may treat the researcher as an outsider therefore this would reduce validity as they may not act naturally. By being immersed in the group the researcher has the potential to be at risk of harm (depending on the group being researched) also they could become too involved meaning they present the group with bias which reduces the validity of the findings.

THEORETICAL: Positivists would not like this method as it is difficult to replicate, especially if there isn’t a coding scheme, meaning that reliability is reduced.

44
Q

covert non-participant observation strengths

A

PRACTICAL: The researcher is not involved in the group meaning that it is a fairly easy and cost effective method. It also means they are less likely to become too involved which increases the validity as a more honest and unbiased insight can be gained.

ETHICAL: The researcher is unlikely to influence the group studied. Also they are at less risk of harm if they are not fully involved in the group. Therefore the group is less likely to change their behaviour increasing validity of the data collected.

THEORETICAL: Interpretivists would favour this method as rich and in-depth insight is gained which increases validity.

45
Q

covert non-participant observation weakness

A

PRACTICAL:

  • researcher is more distant from the group
  • can’t see the full picture of behaviour.
  • This more superficial insight means means that less valid data would be collected.

ETHICAL:

  • no informed consent can be given
  • This research is unethical
  • validity could be reduced as the researcher could hold prejudices/researcher bias towards the group.

THEORETICAL:
-hard to replicate reducing reliability. -Positivists would not like this method as a result of this.

46
Q

overt participant observation strengths

A

PRACTICAL: The participants know that they are being observed and allows the researcher to research them in-depth if they are part of their lives. This will increase the validity of the research as a detailed insight into the group is gained.

ETHICAL: The researcher can be fully immersed in the group to be studied and experience verstehen / understanding. This can mean that a really true insight into groups can be gained. As the participants know they are being researched BSA ethical guidelines are followed and informed consent is likely to be gained, this increases the validity as the participants will be more informed and should feel more comfortable.

THEORETICAL: Interpretivist would favour this method as rich and in-depth insight is gained which increases validity.

47
Q

overt participant observation weakness

A

PRACTICAL: As the participants know they are being observed the Hawthorne Effect may occur as they may change their behaviour due to wanted to act in a socially desirable manner. This can affect validity as their true behaviour and reactions may not be observed.

ETHICAL: Empathy and understanding may be reduced if the participants feel uncomfortable being observed. They may treat the researcher as an outsider therefore this would reduce validity as they may not act naturally. By being immersed in the group the researcher has the potential to be at risk of harm (depending on the group being researched) also they could become too involved meaning they present the group with bias which reduces the validity of the findings.

THEORETICAL: Positivists would not like this method as it is difficult to replicate, especially if there isn’t a coding scheme, meaning that reliability is reduced.

48
Q

covert participant observation strengths

A

PRACTICAL: If the researcher is immersed in the group they could potentially discretely probe respondents (perhaps supplement research with other methods as well as observations). This can increase validity as the participants can explain their actions.

ETHICAL: The researcher can be fully immersed in the group to be studied and experience verstehen / understanding. This can mean that a really true insight into groups can be gained. This increases the validity as the researcher will have the opportunity to build up a rapport meaning the participants should feel more comfortable to act natural. This leads to less risk of emotional harm.

THEORETICAL: Interpretivists would favour this method as rich and in-depth insight is gained which increases validity.

49
Q

covert participant observation weaknesses

A

PRACTICAL: If the researcher is covertly involved it could be difficult to take accurate field notes which will reduce validity especially if recorded from memory.

ETHICAL: This method holds real ethical issues as no informed consent can be given if the participants do not know they are being observed. This research is unethical and validity could be reduced as the researcher could hold prejudices/researcher bias towards the group. There is a higher possibility of ‘going native’ or losing objectivity decreasing validity

THEORETICAL: The research would be hard to replicate reducing reliability. Positivists would not like this method as a result of this.

50
Q

ethnography strengths

A

PRACTICAL: It is about achieving ‘verstehen’ - being able to empathise with or think like the people who are being studied increasing validity - Can gain good access and insight into participants.

ETHICAL: Allows researcher to gain a true insight into the group means emotional harm isn’t caused as rapport can be developed – This increases representativeness and validity if they participants are presented accurately.

THEORETICAL: Ethnographic research is preferred by interpretivist sociologists, who argue that only ethnographic methods such as unstructured interviews allow researchers access to the ‘lived experience’ of particular social groups and to get inside their head - Increases validity as a true insight is gained.

51
Q

ethnography weaknesses

A

PRACTICAL: A good ethnographic research study will require a huge investment in the researcher’s time, because some studies can go on for years, and the researcher needs to be part of the culture or group for all that time or representativeness is decreased. Also it means a small sample is gained decreasing generalisability as wider claims cannot be made.

ETHICAL: As the researcher is immersed in the group - This type of research can be harmful for the researcher as they can put themselves in dangerous situations, e.g. when researching gang culture. Also they may go native or lose objectivity if they become too involved decreasing validity as a true insight may not be shown.

THEORETICAL: Positivists do not favour this type of research because quantitative data is not gained and therefore it will not be objective, replicable which decreases reliability

52
Q

triangulation ( mixed method) strengths

A

PRACTICAL:

  • Increases accuracy of the research data
  • higher in validity (more true reflection of the social reality)

ETHICAL:
-Encourages reflexivity (self evaluation) -checking researchers are as objective
increasing the validity ( honest and less bias insight is gained)

THEORETICAL:
Realists would prefer -
-purpose of research is to obtain data to test one theory against another theory.
-gain both a combination of qualitative and quantitative data and/or means data
They would see this method as ‘fit for purpose’.

53
Q

Methodological pluralism PET

A

PRACTICAL: Each method used can provide a different understanding of society, therefore using a variety of methods can allow for a wider range of issues to be addressed increasing validity as a deeper insight into the group is gained.

ETHICAL: The advantages and disadvantages of the methods used can counterbalance each other increasing validity.

THEORETICAL: Realists would prefer the use of methodological pluralism because they believe that the purpose of research is to gain a full insight into the group being researched. Methodological Pluralism is preferable to Realists as research approaches as is can gain both a combination of qualitative and quantitative data and/or means data can be cross checked easily

54
Q

Ethical guidelines

The British sociological association BSA

A
  • Confidentiality
  • privacy
  • anonymity
  • right to withdraw
  • avoiding harm to participants
  • protecting vulnerable groups
  • informed consent
  • ensuring legality
  • safeguarding
55
Q

Gate keeper - observation key concepts

A

the person or persons who provide the sociologist with access to those they wish to research

56
Q

going native - observation key concept

A

when a researcher become so involved with the group they are studying they lose objectivity and research loses validity

57
Q

Field dairy observation key concept

A

notes that are taken whilst conducting observation ‘in the field’

58
Q

Hawthorne effect observation key concept

A

refer to when those being studied change there behaviour because they know they are being watched.
reducing the validity of the research . associated with overt research.

sociolgy 2 year (19 decks)

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