Metabolism

Question 1

Cellular metabolism

Answer 1

All controlled chemical reactions that occur inside a cell

Question 2

Anabolic metabolism

Answer 2

Reactions that join molecules together

Question 3

Catabolic metabolism

Answer 3

Reactions that break molecules apart

Question 4

Body weight and energy balance

Answer 4

Weight is determined by energy balance and generally has a homeostatic set point

In humans this set pint can vary quite dramatically between individuals

Influence regulation of weight and set point
Hereditary, environmental influence

Question 5

Appetite - short term regulators

Answer 5

Ghrelin
• Secreted by parietal cells in the fundus of the stomach.
• Produces hunger.
• Stimulates the hypothalamus to secrete GHRH.

Peptide YY (PYY)
• Secreted by enteroendocrine cells of the ileum and colon.
•Primary effect is to signal satiety. ( full and don’t need to eat)

Cholecystokinin (CCK)
• Secreted by enteroendocrine cells in the duodenum and jejunum.
• Stimulates secretion of bile and pancreatic enzymes.
• Stimulates the brain via the vagus nerve to produce an appetite-suppress

Amylin
• Hormone secreted by beta cells of pancreatic islets.
• Produces satièty.
• Slows digestive activities of the stomach.

Question 6

Appetite - long term regulators

Answer 6

Govern the average rate of calorie intake and energy expenditure over weeks and years.
• Inform the brain about the volume of adipose tissue in the body.
• Activate mechanisms to either add or remove adipose tissue.
Leptin
•Secreted by adipocytes.
•Its level is proportional to an individual’s fat storage.
•Assists the brain in determining the amount of body fat present.

Insulin
•Provides similar functions to leptin.
•Acts as an index of the body’s fat stores.

Question 7

Metabolism

Answer 7

Metabolism
Represents the total of all chemical reactions in the body.
•Comprises two main processes:
Catabolism
Anabolism

Question 8

Catabolism

Answer 8

Catabolism
•Energy-releasing process.
•Large molecules are broken down into smaller ones.
•The released energy is utilized for:
•Driving various reactions.
• Processes such as active transport and muscle contraction.

Question 9

Anabolism

Answer 9

Anabolism
•Energy-requiring process.
•Small molecules are combined to form larger ones.
•Occurs in cells, especially during:
Cell division to produce new cells.
• Formation of substances like fat and protein.

Question 10

Which of the following is a catabolic process?

Answer 10

C. Breaking down large molecules into smaller ones.

Question 11

What is the primary characteristic of anabolism?

Answer 11

• C. Energy-requiring.

Question 12

A monosaccharide is formed from a polysaccharide in what kind of reaction?

Answer 12

Catabolic reaction

Question 13

Carbohydrates

Answer 13

•Storage in a well-nourished adult:
• Total: Approximately 440g of CHO
• Muscle glycogen: 325g
• Liver glycogen: 90-100g
• Blood glucose: 15-20g

•Functions:
• Mainly serves as fuel for the body
•Some participate in the structural components of other molecules

•Energy Demands:
• Most cells fulfill their energy needs through CHO and fats
• Certain cells rely almost exclusively on CHO, such as:
• Erythrocytes
• Neurons

•Blood Glucose Regulation:
• Achieved through the interplay of glucagon and insulin.

Question 14

Fats

Answer 14

Adults derive 80-90% of their resting energy requirements from fat.
Fat represents the primary form of stored energy in the body.

Essential roles of specific fats:
• Phospholipids and cholesterol:
Play vital structural roles in cell membranes.
• Have significant physiological functions within the body.

Advantages of Fat over Carbohydrates (CHO):
• Hydrophobic nature:
Offers a higher energy source.
Provides greater energy yield than CHO.
• Glucose and protein sparing effect:
When sufficient fat is available, glucose is reserved primarily for cells that rely heavily on it, such as neurons.

Role in Vitamin Absorption:
• Vitamins A, D, E, and K require fat for effective absorption.

Consequences of Inadequate Fat Intake:
• Insufficient dietary fat can lead to deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins.

Question 15

Protein

Answer 15

Constituent in the Body:
• Makes up approximately 12-15% of body mass.
• 65% of this is found in skeletal muscle.

Functional Roles:
• Enables muscle contraction. Cause muscles are made of it
• Facilitates the motility of cilia and flagella.
• Plays a significant role as a structural component in cellular membranes and other structures.
•Provides pH stability in blood. Buffering effect
• Assists in blood clotting.
• Aids in gas transportation in the blood.

Specific Protein Types:
• Structural Proteins:
• Collagen: Provides structural strength to connective tissues.
• Keratin: Provides structural strength to skin.
• Transport Proteins: Help in the transport of various molecules.
• Receptor Molecules: Receive and transmit signals in the body.

Energy Role:
Can serve as an energy when others are being used least preferred. Eg starvation break down muscles to get energy

Question 16

Cho metabolism

Answer 16

•Most dietary carbohydrates (CHO) are metabolised within a few hours after absorption.

•The catabolic reaction for glucose is:
• CgH1206 + 6 02 - 6 CO2 + 6 H20 + ATP

The primary goal of this reaction is:
• Transfer energy from Glucose to ATP
• NOT the production of carbon dioxide and water.

Question 17

Glucose catabolism

Answer 17

Digestion & Absorption
Large nutrient molecules are broken down into smaller molecules.
• These smaller molecules are then absorbed into the blood.

ATP Synthesis
• Molecules are taken into cells and catabolised.
• The energy from catabolism is used to combine ADP and Pi, forming ATP.
• ADP + Pi + Energy = ATP

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• Chemical reactions transfer energy from chemical bonds in glucose to ATP.
• These reactions involve oxidation-reduction processes.
• A molecule is reduced when it gains electrons.
• A molecule is oxidised when it loses electrons.

Phosphorylation Sites
• Phosphorylation occurs in:
• The cytoplasm during glycolysis.
• The mitochondrial matrix during the Krebs cycle.

Question 18

Which of the following is a monosaccharide?

Answer 18

Glucose

Question 19

When a molecule gains electrons, it is:

Answer 19

C. Reduced

Question 20

During which of the following processes does a molecule lose electrons?

Question 21

Glucose catabolism

Answer 21

Pathways of Glucose Breakdown:
• Glycolysis:
•Splits one glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules.
• Produces a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.

• Anaerobic Fermentation:
•Converts pyruvate to lactate in the absence of 02.
• Notable in muscle cells during intense activity.

• Aerobic Respiration (requires 02):
• Requires 02.
• Oxidizes pyruvate to produce COz and H2O.
• Involves the Krebs cycle and the Electron
Transport Chain in the mitochondria.

Question 22

Coenzymes

Answer 22

• Enzymes remove electrons (H+) from compounds, but don’t bind them. They give them to coenzymes that add to other compounds in later reaction pathways.

FAD + 2 H* -> FADH,
NAD* + 2 H+-> NADH + H+

Question 23

Glycolysis fist step (energy consumption stage)

Answer 23

2 ATPs consumed in this phase

Phosphorylation of Glucose
• Glucose + ATP -> Glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) + ADP
• Traps glucose inside the cell
Conversion to Fructose
Glucose-6-phosphate is converted to its isomer, Fructose-6-phosphate
Second Phosphorylation:
• Fructose-6-phosphate + ATP _› Fructose- 1,6-bisphosphate + ADP.
• Addition of the second phosphate prepares the sugar for cleavage in the next steps.

Question 24

Glycolysis - Cleavage

Answer 24

Cleavage of the 6-Carbon Sugar:
• Fructose- 1,6-bisphosphate is split into two 3-carbon
molecules:
• Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (PGAL).
• DHAP is rapidly and reversibly converted into another molecule of Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (PGAL).

This concludes the energy-consuming phase where:
• Glucose is primed with high-energy phosphate groups
• Then divided into two 3-carbon molecules.

Question 25

Glycolysis - Oxidation of PGAL

Answer 25

Oxidation and Phosphorylation of PGAL

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (PAL) undergoes:
• Oxidation, transferring electrons and protons to NAD+, resulting in NADH + H+.
• Concurrent phosphorylation with inorganic phosphate (Pi), producing 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG).

Question 26

Glycolysis - ATP Formation - dephosphorylation

Answer 26

ATP Formation 1
• 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate transfers a phosphate to AD creating ATP.
• This occurs twice per glucose, yielding 2 ATPs.

ATP Formation 2
• Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) transfers its phosphate to
ADP, forming ATP.
• Also happens twice per glucose, yielding an additional 2 ATPs.

At the end of glycolysis, one molecule of glucose has been converted into two molecules of pyruvate.

Question 27

Glycolysis - Recap

Answer 27

Glycolysis has two phases:
• Energy Consumption Phase:
• Consumes 2 ATPs.

• Energy Generation Phase:
• Produces 2 NADH molecules (and 2 H+).
• Produces 4 ATP molecules.

Net gain
• 2 ATPs per glucose molecule (considering the 2
ATPs used in the energy consumption phase).

Question 28

Which of the following is NOT a product of glycolysis?

Answer 28

FADH2

Question 29

How many net ATP molecules are produced in glycolysis from one glucose molecule?

Answer 29

2

Question 30

In glycolysis, glucose is initially activated by:

Answer 30

C. Phosphorylation

Question 31

Anaerobic fermentation

Answer 31

Under anaerobic conditions, cells can’t use pyruvate to generate ATP in the mitochondria; instead, it’s reduced to lactate.

Reduction of Pyruvate:
NADH donates electrons and one H to pyruvate, and in the process, is oxidized to NAD*
• Pyruvate is converted to lactate.
• Essential for ongoing glycolysis and ATP production in anaerob conditions.

Question 32

Aerobic Respiration

Answer 32

Under anaerobic conditions, cells can’t use pyruvate to generate ATP in the mitochondria; instead, it’s reduced to lactate.

Question 33

Cho metabolism

Answer 33

Most carbohydrates are metabolised within a few hours

How we turn glucose into ATP

Question 34

Creating ATP

Answer 34

We are getting energy from some kind of molecule, bonds in that molecule. Using that energy to phosphorylation adp. Taking adp adding phosphate creating ATP. Energy is required from the bonds with glucose

Question 35

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Answer 35

Chemical reactions transfer energy from chemical bonds to ATP.
These reactions involve oxidation-reduction processes

A molecule is reduced when it gains electrons.
..
A molecule is oxidised when it loses electrons.

Question 36

Glycolysis

Answer 36

Split one glucose molecule into two pryuvate molecules

Produces a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH

Question 37

From glycolysis there is two pathways

Answer 37

Anaerobic fermentations and aerobic fermentation

Don’t need to produce ATP really quickly you will use aerobic respiration and is the most efficient way. Taking one molecule of glucose and creating a total of 36 atp inside mitochondria. That’s why mitochondria is called the power house as it can create a lot of ATP from not much

Need to create ATP really quickly and can’t require enough oxygen the use of aerobic fermentation. Go from pryuvate to lactate

Question 38

Aerobic respiration stage one

Answer 38

First stage:
Pryuvate decarboxylation
So our first step, we had 2 pyruvate, those pyruvate get converted into a chemical that we call acetyl coenzyme, a or acetyl coa so our pyruvate itself moves from the cytosol of the cell.and enzymes transform that pyruvate into a carbon dioxide.
So it takes one of the carbons off of it, adds it to some water, and has added to some oxygen sorry and has carbon dioxidend 2 carbon essential groups. nergies release during the action which reduces so adds n electron nad plus to nad h. the 2 carbon acetyl group combines with coenzyme a, and it forms acetyl coenzyme, a. So one glucose became 2 pyruvate in glycolysis.2 acetal coenzyme, a to carbon dioxide, which is why we have to get rid of carbon dioxide when we breathe out, and to nad h

Question 39

Stage two Krebs cycle

Answer 39

so cyclical series of chemical reactions that happen inside the mitochondrial matrix. So inside the mitochondria itself. Start with two acetal coenzymes a’s and add it to 4 carbon molecule here to create 1 6 carbon molecule, which we call citric acid. We go through this whole cycle and at the end create some water we create some Nadh and some hydrogen ions.We create some carbon dioxide.and we create one atp. We also create some fad. H. 2,

This cycle gives us 2 carbon dioxide, 3 nadh, one fadh, 2 and one Atp.

Question 40

Stage three- oxidative phosphorylation

Answer 40

What is happening here is we take that and NADH. And FADH. 2 from earlier. And we take the electronsfrom those molecules. So they donate molecules.And those molecules make their way along the electron transport chainwhile they’re making their way along this chain of protein complexes.
They pump hydrogen ions that are sitting in the mitochondrial matrix into the inter membrane space.taking these electrons off goes through a chain of chemical reactions.And that powers the pumping of hydrogen from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space.That means that we end up with this big build up of hydrogen arms up here.So we have this big amount of hydrogen in the intermembrane space compared to the mitochondrial matrix. the gradient difference. So just the fact that we have more up here than we have down heremeans that these hydrogen ions go through this protein complex here, that we call atp synthase. that what actually happens in Atv synthes. It spins like a turbine, and it takes adp and phosphate, and it creates atp. So it regenerates a bunch of atp through this area. Here we call atp synthes. those hydrogen ions and the electrons that we use added to oxygen. So this is why we need oxygen for it to occur. They all get added together, and they create H2O. So we have hydrogen.Add the electrons to them, so they’re full hydrogens and add a water, and you’re left with H2O. Water is the by product to stop a highly acidic environment.

Question 41

Glycolysis is considered anaerobic because:

Answer 41

It didn’t require oxygen

Question 42

What happens to pyruvate in muscle cells during intense exercise when gen is scarce

Answer 42

It is converted to lactate

Question 43

Where does the Krebs Cycle take place in the cell?

Answer 43

Mitochondrial matrix

Question 44

Which molecule enters the Krebs cycle

Answer 44

• Acetyl-CoA

It’s goal is to make ATP

Question 45

How many ATP molecules are directly produced in one round of the Krebs

Answer 45

1

Question 46

Lipid metabolism

Answer 46

Lipolysis:
• Breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol & fatty acids

Fatty Acid Oxidation:
•Conversion of fatty acids to acetyl-CoA
•Occurs in mitochondria
•Beta-oxidation process
1. Activation: Fatty acids activated to fatty acyl-Co in the cytoplasm.
2. Transport: Fatty acyl-CoA enters mitochondria via the carnitine shuttle.
3. Oxidation: Inside mitochondria, fatty acyl-CoA is shortened in cycles:
•Each cycle removes two carbons, forming acetyl-CoA.
•During these cycles, electrons are transferred to NAD* and FAD, forming NADH and FADH, respectively.
4. Energy Production: Acetyl-CoA enters Krebs cycle; NADH and FADH2 provide energy in electron transport chain.

That’s super energy dense. So they got a lot of energy in them, because we can take this big, long, fatty, acid chain, and we can break it into individual 2 carbon pieces in a process called bet oxidation to create a single coland into the citric acid cycle.
So we can create a lot from it.
but it has to go through lipolysis, and then beta oxidation to createfor those fatty acids to enter the Krebs cycle.

Question 47

Metabolism states

Answer 47

metabolism varies based on factors like the time elapsed since your last meal

sorptive (Fed) State:
1. Approximately 4 hours during and after a meal.
2. Nutrients from the food are being absorbed during this time.
3. Nutrients absorbed are used to meet the bodys immediate energy requirements.
ost-Absorptive (Fasting) State:
1. Typically Ocours late morning, late afernoon, and overnight.
2. The body is not absorbing nuthents from a resent meal.
3. The body relies on stored energy reserves to fuel its functions.

Question 48

Absorption state

Answer 48

Absorptive State:
•Blood glucose is readily available for ATP synthesis.

Carbohydrates (CHO):
•Absorbed CHO is transported to the liver via the hepatic portal system.
•Most CHO passes through the liver for tissue use.
•Excess CHO is converted to glycogen or stored as fat.

Fats:
• Fats enter the lymphatic system as chylomicrons.
• Fats serve as a primary energy substrate for
• Hepatocytes (liver cells)
• Adipocytes (fat producing cells)
•Muscle cells

Amino Acids:
Initially move to the liver,
• Most pass through and become available for protein synthesis,

Question 49

Regulation of the Absorptive State

Answer 49

Insulin is the main factor
is our main factor, and what insulin itself does it regulates the rate of glucose, uptake into nearby cells, and it inhibits glucanogenesis sostimulates glucose up to date oxidation, so breaking up that glucose, it stimulates glycogenesis, so creation of glycogen from glucoseand it stimulates lipogenesis so fat formation from non fat sources

Question 50

Post absorptive state

Answer 50

in the post-absorptive state, though the main aim of the post absorptive state is to regulate blood, glucose concentration to within about 90 to 100 milligrams per decilitre, so glucose is drawn from glycogen stores.or synthesize from other compounds, adipocytes and hepato hepatocytes hydrolysize fats and convert glycerol to glucose, and if glycogen and fat are depleted, then protein gets used as a fuel source, so proteins are leastfavored. Fuel source. If we run out of glucose. We go to fat. If we run out of both, then we need to use glucose.

The one thing that you probably need to know from this is that regulation of the post absorptive state is primarily regulated by either sympathetic nervous system, but from a hormonal level is regulated by workagon, so insulin being our main regulator in our absorptive state after our absorptive state is over, then
Glucagon is our regulatory is our main regulator of glucose levels.

Mostly regulated by the sympathetic nervous system and glucagon
As BGL drops, glucagon is released to promote glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
The sympathoadrenal system also promotes glycogenolysis and lipolysis, particular under conditions such as injury, fear, stress etc.

Question 51

Which enzyme facilitates the synthesis of ATP as protons flow back the mitochondrial matrix?

Answer 51

ATP synthase

Question 52

Which molecule primarily drives the synthesis of ATP during oxidative phosphorylation?

Answer 52

Proton gradient

Question 53

In what cellular location does oxidative phosphorylation occur?

Answer 53

Inner mitochondrial membrane

Question 54

Which of the following hormones is primarily responsible for regulating metabolism in the absorptive state?

Answer 54

Insulin Insulin is correct, cool. So we’ve got glucose directly, being absorbed into our bloodstream while we’re absorbing food while we’re digesting and absorbingthe carbohydrates we’ve just eaten.and so we end up with a spike in blood glucose, which means we need to secrete insulin, to store that blood glucose either as glycogen bring it into the cells to actually be used orto be stored as fat, so insulin is going to be. The thing regulatinghave blood glucose levels, but which are the following hormones, is primarily responsible for regulating metabolism in a post absorbing state

Question 55

Which of the following hormones is primarily responsible for regulating metabolism in the post-absorptive state?

Answer 55

Glucagon

So Glucagon’s correct. So what Glucagon does? It takes that store, glycogen, and it breaks it down from Polysaccharide to our Monosaccharide of glucose, so that we have enough glucose in our blood. And it starts to signal your body to create more glucose from other sources. So, using stored fat, breaking it down so that we have more glucose, so that we havethe energy needs that weor the energy that ourselves need to undergo cellular processes

Question 56

Metabolic rate

Answer 56

Total amount of energy produced and used by the body per unit of time

ATP is produced in cells at about the same rate as it is used
• Because ATP production involves the use of oxygen, metabolic rate i usually estimated by measuring the amount of oxygen used per minu (oxygen consumption)

Metabolic energy, three main categories

First.
Energy that you need to do basic functioning of your body when at rest.
cellular maintenance, maintaining your heartbeat, maintaining your breathing. Biggest contributor to metabolic rate ~60%

Second
Thermal effect of food
energy that’s needed to digest food, to absorb food and then to metabolise those nutrients. So everything we’ve talked about in the last couple of weeks. A lot of those processes require atp to occur. And so we need to continue to refuel that atp. Can account for ~10% of energy expenditure

Thirdly
Thermal effect of activity
. So basically energy expenditure due to any physical or muscular activity, sothat can range from everything from me, sitting here trying to talk, and maybe moving around
to us.walking, you know, getting up from bed and walking and making a coffee anything like that, but it can also include obviouslyrigorous exercise.The more intense you exercise, the more energy is required, because there’s more muscular activity. And so this is probably the biggest area of variation from person to person. If you are super active throughout your day, or if you’re an athlete, then you have a much larger, thermal, effective activity and potentially as a result you have higher metabolic needs. Need to eat more food to maintain energy levels

Question 57

Basal metabolic rate

Answer 57

Energy needed to keep the resting body functional

Determined by measuring 02 consumption of a person who is awake but restful and not eaten for 12 hours

Accounts for ~60% of daily energy expenditure

Increase BMR due to:
• Increased muscle mass
• Younger
• Fever
• Gender

Question 58

Thermal effect of food

Answer 58

Increment in energy expenditure above BMR due to the cost of processing food for storage and
use

Production of secretions
Increased motility of digestive tract
Active transport increases
Synthesis of new molecules in the liver

10% of daily energy expenditure

Question 59

Thermal effect of activities

Answer 59

The energy expended during activity in excess of that required for BMR
• Skeletal muscular contraction
• Cardiac muscle contraction
• Muscles associated with respiration

Calories expended are relative to the muscular work performed

About 30%

Question 60

Body temperature

Answer 60

Constant body temperature is important to homeostasis ~37.5degrees Celsius

Question 61

Heat exchange

Answer 61

Radiation
Gain or loss of heat through infra-red radiation between two objects (don’t need to be in physical contact).

Conduction
Next one is conduction. So conduction is heat transfer through a solid material.That doesn’t actually require any movement of the material itself.
The the heat is actually is just going to propagate through that solid material. Sofor instance, if you hold a metal rod and you heat it up one end.
The other end is obviously going to get hot overtime. That transfer heat we call conduction, or if you put a cast on pan on aon your stove topand you heat it up, and it’s one of the ones with a cast iron handle.
That handle is eventually going to come hot. And that’s through conduction.
• Exchange of heat between objects in direct contact with one another

Convection
convection is heat transfer just because fluids move around. So this can be our blood, air, or water. So because there’s a density difference caused by temperature changes. Fluid moves around, and convection helps distribute heat through a fluid, and whenever we use this term fluid in sciences, we meanliquids and gases, not just liquids. So.for instance, if you boil water in a pot, that hot water rises, the cool water sinks, and it means that all that water maintains a relatively consistent temperature. But if we think of us as a personwind patterns in the atmosphere is something that’s going to move around and and move warm in cool air and mix them together through convection.

Evaporation
vaporation is the last one, and I’m ure you know what evaporation is.
‘s where we go from a liquid to a as andthe it allows us to dissipate heat.The rate of evacuation is going to and be affected by things like surface area, humidity.wind, speed, temperature. Butsweating is how we, as humans use evaporation to try and cool down.

Question 62

Trying to maintain body temperature

Answer 62

trying to maintain this normal body temperature of somewhere around 35.6 to 36.8, we’re saying, is normal body temperature.
There’s a few homeostatic mechanisms that occur to try and maintain that step point. And that’s all this figure is trying to show. So if we have an imbalance where our blood is cooler than that Homeo. But then that hypothalamic set point. So your hypothalamus setting this set point, then your hypothalamus is going to activate.A few mechanisms to try andbring your body temperature back up. So first is going to be scalia muscles get activated. So you’re going to do things like shiver, which generates heat to try and bring your body temperature up. That shivering requires atp. your blood vessels are going to constrict in your skin. So you’re trying to divert blood from your skin to deeper tissues to minimize heat loss overall from your skin surface. and so, as a result of both of those, your body temperature is going to increase, and your hypothalamus hypothalamus heat promoting center is going to shut off.

on the other end of the spectrum.
If you have an increase in body temperature.either you’re exercising. The climate’s getting. it’s real hot, like it’s 40 degree day or something.your blood is going to become warmer than that hypothalamic set point. It’s going to be detected at the hypothalamus, and as a result. You have a few mechanisms that are going to occur. Your sweat plans will be activated to secrete perspirations and Are you going to sweat. which, through evaporation is going to help you cool down, but also your blood vessels are going to dilate. your capillaries become flushed with warm blood and heat can radiate more easily from your skin surface?that cools your body down, and we maintain this homeostatic set point

Question 63

CHO metabolism

Answer 63

So when we’re talking about carbohydrate metabolism, we’re talking about taking glucose and using some oxygen to create, some atp, and as a byproduct we end up with some water.

Question 64

Glycolysis

Answer 64

Start with glucose
Add phosphate to our 6 carbon molecules which was glucose.
We have this 6 carbon molecule called glucose
We take some phosphate from Atp and join it to that 6 carbon molecule we call it phosphorylation
Needed to use 2 atp to get to this point
Once we are at this point we can break our 6 carbon molecule in half
We end up with 2, 3 carbon molecules each with. Phosphate attached
We then add one more phosphate to each of these 2
End up with 2, 3 carbon molecules each with 2 phosphate attached.
Then we take those phosphates off in a process called phosphate correlation
We add them to adp and end up with atp

End up with 4 atp and left with 2 pryuvate which is the end product of glycolysis

Question 65

Glycolysis phases

Answer 65

Glycolysis has two phases:
• Energy Consumption Phase:
• Consumes 2 ATPs.
• Energy Generation Phase:
• Produces 2 NADH molecules (and 2 H*).
• Produces 4 ATP molecules.

Net gain
• 2 ATPs per glucose molecule (considering the 2
ATPs used in the energy consumption phase).

Question 66

Anaerobic fermentation

Answer 66

Under anaerobic conditions, cells can’t use pyruvate to generate ATP in the mitochondria; instead, it’s reduced to lactate.

Reduction of Pyruvate:
•NADH donates electrons and one H to pyruvate, and in the process, is oxidized to NAD*
• Pyruvate is converted to lactate.
•Essential for ongoing glycolysis and ATP production in anaerobic conditions.