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A-Level Psychology Year 1 > Memory- JK > Flashcards

Memory- JK Flashcards

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1
Q

What is memory?

A

The process of encoding, storing and retrieving information after the original material is no longer present

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2
Q

What are the three types of long term memory?

A

Episodic (autobiographical)
Semantic (knowledge & concepts)
Procedural (skills & actions)

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3
Q

What is encoding and what are the three types of encoding?

A

Creating a chemical trace when presented with a stimulus to a form that can be stored
1)Visual 2)Acoustic 3)Semantic

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4
Q

What does the multi store model look like?

A

SENSORY REGISTER—- decay
attention
SHORT TERM STORE—- decay or displacement
rehearsal
LONG TERM STORE—- interference or retrieval failure

info passes in a a linear way

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5
Q

What is the short term store’s capacity?

A

7 ± 2 items

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6
Q

What is the preferred encoding of the short term store?

A

Acoustic

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7
Q

What is the short term store’s duration?

A

18 seconds

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8
Q

What is the long term store’s capacity?

A

Unlimited

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9
Q

What is the preferred encoding of the long term store?

A

Semantic

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10
Q

What is the long term store’s duration?

A

Unlimited

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11
Q

What is the duration of the sensory memory?

A

250 milliseconds (0.25 seconds)

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12
Q

What are the three sensory registers?

A

1) Ionic register (visual)
2) Echoic register (sound/auditory)
3) Haptic register (touch)

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13
Q

What are two facts about the sensory memory store?

A

1) It isn’t unitary
2) The stores are passive (no consciously controlled)

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14
Q

What is chunking?

A

Organising items into familiar/manageable units

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15
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

LTM- explicit/declarative , autobiographical memories of events including contextual details

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16
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

LTM of how to perform skills & actions (implicit)

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17
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

LTM- shared memories of facts and knowledge (concrete or abstract), explicit

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18
Q

What is the capacity of the sensory memory?

A

Very large

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19
Q

What encoding does the sensory register have?

A

Modality specific

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20
Q

What evidence supports the MSM?

A

Physiological evidence- brain scans (PET scans) show the prefrontal cortex is active when using the STM & the hippocampus when using LTM

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21
Q

What 2 effects support the MSM & how?

A

1) Primary effect
2) Recency effect as they show separate stores

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22
Q

What is the primary effect?

A

Superior recall of earlier items

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23
Q

What is the recency effect?

A

Superior recall of items at the end

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24
Q

What are 2 case studies that can evaluate the MSM & how?

A

HM & KF- show linear, separate stores but are unethical & non-unitary LTM

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25
Q

What is HM’s case study?

A

Brain surgery- could form STM but not LTM, except for procedural memories

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26
Q

What is KF’s case study?

A

Brain damage motorbike crash- LTM unimpaired, 1-2 capacity in STM- worse with auditory stimuli

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27
Q

What is the working memory model?

A

An accurate representation of what you are thinking about now- concerned with active processing & ST storage of info

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28
Q

What are the components of the WMM?

A

1) Central executive
2) Phonological loop
3) Visuo-spatial sketchpad
4) Episodic buffer
5) LTM

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29
Q

What is the function of the central executive?

A

Monitors & coordintes mental functions in the WM- plans & makes decisions

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30
Q

What is the capacity and storage of the central executive?

A

1) Limited attention capacity
2) No storage of information

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31
Q

What is the coding of the phonological loop?

A

Acoustic information

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32
Q

What is the PL’s 1) capacity & 2) duration?

A

1) Limited
2) 1.5 to 2 seconds

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33
Q

What are the 2 subcomponents of the PL?

A

1) Articulatory control process (inner voice)
2) Phonological store (inner ear)

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34
Q

What is the articulatory control process (inner voice)?

A

Sub comp of PL- used for words that are heard or seen & silently repeats them

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35
Q

What is the phonological store (inner ear)?

A

Sub comp of PL- holds information that you hear

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36
Q

What is the coding of the VSS?

A

Visual and spatial information

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37
Q

What is the capacity of the VSS?

A

3-4 items

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38
Q

What are the 2 subcomponents of the VSS?

A

1) Visual cache (inner eye)
2) Inner scribe

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39
Q

What is the visual cache (inner eye)?

A

Sub comp of VSS- holds visual item’s properties

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40
Q

What is the inner scribe?

A

Sub comp of VSS- deals with spatial relations

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41
Q

What is the episodic buffer?

A

Enables information in the VSS & PL to be combined with information in the LTM & maintains time sequencing

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42
Q

What is the storage of the episodic buffer?

A

Limited

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43
Q

What are 2 facts about the WMM?

A

1) It is non-unitary
2) The components can operate independently

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44
Q

What are 4 supporting evidence for the WMM?

A

1) Brain damaged patients (KF)
2) PET scans
3) Dual task evidence
4)Difference in WM component performance

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45
Q

What is are 2 opposing evidence of the WMM?

A

1) The central executive- vague
2) Brain scan evidence- trauma

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46
Q

What are 2 strengths of the WMM?

A

1) More plausible, complex & accurate
2) Supported by research evidence

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47
Q

What are 2 criticisms of the MSM?

A

1) Use of rehearsal to create LTM
2) The existence of unitary stores

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48
Q

What are 3 criticisms of the WMM?

A

1) Central executive- capacity, single component?
2) Doesn’t explain changes in processing ability
3) Difficult to falsify the model- can be used to explain any results

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49
Q

What are two explanations for forgetting?

A

1) Interference
2) Retrieval failure- absence of cues

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50
Q

What are the 2 types of interference?

A

1) Proactive interference
2) Retroactive interference

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51
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

When previous memories interfere with new ones

52
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

When new memories interfere with the ability to recall older memories

53
Q

What is forgetting?

A

The inability to recall previously learnt material

54
Q

Why does interfere occur and how does it worsen?

A

Because there is competition between the correct and incorrect responses- comp increases as more similar memories are present

55
Q

When are memories vulnerable to interference & retrieval failure?

A

During consolidation

56
Q

What type of memory is more resistant to interference?

A

Semantic memory

57
Q

What is a strength of interference theory?

A

There are some everyday examples e.g. passwords, names

58
Q

What are 2 limitations of interference theory?

A

1) Supporting evidence is often laboratory based & artificial- mundane realism? ecological validity?
2) Only explains some forgetting

59
Q

What is mundane realism to do with memory?

A

Does it relate to how we use our memory in our everyday lives

60
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle (Tulving & Thomson)?

A

An argument that forgetting occurs due to a poor match of fit between info contained in the memory trace & the cues available at attempted retrieval time- as we encode them with links to other information (context)

61
Q

What are the 2 types of cues?

A

1) Internal cues
2) External cues

62
Q

What are the 2 types of external cues?

A

1) Explicit cues linked to learning material
2) Environmental context (where you were)

63
Q

What is a type of internal cue?

A

Emotional/ psychological or physiological state

64
Q

What is context dependent forgetting?

A

Where individuals fail to recall something as they’re not in the same context at retrieval e.g. different room

65
Q

What is state dependent forgetting?

A

Where individuals fail to recall something as they have a different internal environment (mood/ physiological state)

66
Q

What researchers support state dependent forgetting?

A

1) Godden & Baddeley 1975
2) Tulving & Pearlstone

67
Q

What did Godden & Baddeley do, find & when?

A

1975, scuba divers learned unrelated words on land and under water & were tested in the other context- found higher recall when in the same context

68
Q

What did Tulving & Pearlstone do & find?

A

Participants leant 48 words in 12 categories- participants completed a recall test- Free recall had 40%, Cued recall had 60%

69
Q

What are 3 strengths of retrieval failure theory?

A

1) A lot of research support
2) Real world application
3) Retrieval failure explains interference effects

70
Q

What are 2 limitations of retrieval failure?

A

1) Retrieval cues don’t always work- outshining hypothesis
2) The danger of circularity-correlation, not cause- Don’t cause retrieval just associated with it

71
Q

What is the outshining hypothesis?

A

Cues effectiveness is reduced when in the presence of better cues

72
Q

What is eyewitness testimony (EWT)?

A

Evidence given by a witness to a significant event (e.g. crime)

73
Q

What 2 factors can influence EWT?

A

1) Misleading information & Post event discussion
2) Anxiety

74
Q

What is misleading information?

A

Usually takes the form of a question or statement to an eyewitness that wrongly implies that something happened when it didn’t

75
Q

What type of study was Loftus & Burns’?

A

A lab experiment

76
Q

What did Loftus & Burns’ findings suggest?

A

Misleading information can be absorbed into the original memory after an event

77
Q

What can be concluded from Loftus & burns’ research?

A

Misleading info is more affective on insignificant/ peripheral details

78
Q

Why is it important to word questions carefully when obtaining EWT?

A

Words with different levels of severity may affect individuals responses and their memories of the event (e.g. Loftus & Palmer)

79
Q

What are 3 limitations of research studying EWT & misleading info?

A

1) Lacks ecological validity
2) Artificial, controlled- low anxiety
3) Demand characteristics

80
Q

What are 2 strengths of research studying EWT & misleading info?

A

1) Control over variables- C&E between misleading info & EWT accuracy
2) Replicability is possible

81
Q

What is a leading question?

A

A question that is worded in such a way that it may bias how a respondent answers

82
Q

What and when was Loftus & Palmer’s experiment?

A

Smashed, hit & bumped etc experiment (1974)

83
Q

What was Loftus & Palmer’s procedure?

A

Showed participants 7 films of different traffic accidents, and asked a series of questions about the films, and alternated the verb hit, bumped, smashed etc.

84
Q

What did Loftus & Palmer find?

A

When using “smashed”- estimated speed was 40.3
When using “contacted”- estimated speed was 31.8

85
Q

What is post event discussion?

A

A conversation between co-witnesses or an interviewer and an eyewitness after a crime has taken place which may contaminate a witness’s memory for an event

86
Q

What did Gabbert et al research and when?

A

Influence of co-witnesses on eyewitness memory (2003)

87
Q

What was Gabbert et al (2003) procedure?

A

Young and older adults watched a short film individually or in pairs
In pairs, they watched different films but thought it was the same- only 1 saw the crime
They discussed the event and then individually completed a questionnaire on their memory of the event

88
Q

What did Gabbert et al (2003) find?

A

A majority (71%) of eyewitnesses who discussed the event mistakenly recalled info they hadn’t witnessed
60% of the participants who hadn’t witnessed the crime claimed she was guilty
Similar findings for young and old adults

89
Q

What can be concluded from Gabbert et al’s research?

A

Post event discussion can contaminate an individuals memory of an event- as they may incorporate others recollections into their own- innaccurate recall

90
Q

What is a limitation of Gabbert et al’s research?

A

Not clear whether the distortions obtained reflect problems with memory or are from social pressure

91
Q

What idea did Bartlett (1932) propose lead to innaccurate EWT?

A

Reconstructive memory

92
Q

What is reconstructive memory?

A

A memory that is distorted by the individual’s prior knowledge and expectations

93
Q

How did Bartlett (1932) change how psychologists viewed memory?

A

Changed how they saw it as a passive process to an active process

94
Q

What did Bartlett (1932) argue happened when recalling a memory?

A

The elements of the experience are combined with our schema and reconstructed into a meaningful whole

95
Q

What is a schema?

A

A package of knowledge about something which is built up through our experience of the world e.g. stereotypes

96
Q

What is the core of Bartlett’s theory?

A

Our prior knowledge and beliefs (schema) generate expectations and these expectations reconstruct memory

97
Q

What does Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory suggest?

A

Our memory is quite inaccurate

98
Q

What 3 ways does schema lead to reconstructive memory?

A

1) Ignore aspects that don’t fit current schema
2) Distort memories to fit with prior expectation
3) Schema allows us to make sense of what we have seen by filling in gaps

99
Q

What conclusions can be made from research into anxiety’s effect on EWT?

A

In lab studies, higher anxiety= less accuracy
In real life, higher anxiety= higher accuracy

100
Q

What was Johnson & Scott’s (1976) procedure?

A

Participants were in a waiting room and were exposed to 2 situations:
1) An argument, saw a man run through carrying a pen covered in grease- low anxiety
2) Same as 1) but a paper knife covered in blood- high anxiety

101
Q

What did Johnson & Scott (1976) find?

A

Those who experienced the pen with grease identified the person 49% of the time
Those who experienced the knife with blood identified the person 33% of the time

102
Q

What was Johnson & Scott (1976) finding known as?

A

The weapon focus phenomenon- where witnesses focus their attention on the weapon and are distracted from the appearance of the perpetrator

103
Q

What correlation do anxiety and accuracy in EWT have?

A

Curvilinear

104
Q

What did Loftus & Burns (1982) do to do with EWT & anxiety research?

A

Participants watched a violent or non-violent film of a crime

105
Q

What did Loftus & Burns (1982) find from their EWT research?

A

Participants were less accurate in recalling information about the more violent version

106
Q

What did Yuille & Cutshall do & when?

A

Researched real-life crime, 13 witnesses of a real-life shooting were interviewed several months later after researchers introduced misleading information into the interview- 1986

107
Q

What were Yuille & Cutshall’s findings?

A

Accuracy was- 90% for objects, 83% for actions, 76% for people
Closest people provided the most detail
Misleading information had no effect on accuracy
People who were most distressed at the time were most accurate 5 months later

108
Q

What did Christiansen & Hubinette (1993) do?

A

Obtained testimonies from 58 out of 110 witnesses who witnessed 22 real bank robberies, some winesses some threatened

109
Q

What did Christiansen & Hubinette (1993) find?

A

Victims were more accurate in their recall & recalled more accurate information than bystanders
This superior recall is evident after 15 months too

110
Q

What did Christiansen & Hubinette (1993) conclude?

A

People (especially victims) are good at remembering highly stressful events if they occur in real life rather than in artificial surroundings of the laboratory

111
Q

What are 2 overall limitations of research into EWT?

A

1) Lab experiments- lack eco. validity, artificial
2) Contradictory evidence on the extent to which misleading info affects us

112
Q

What is a cognitive interview?

A

A police technique for interviewing witnesses to a crime that attempts to increase the accessibility of stored info by using multiple retrieval strategies

113
Q

What are 4 strategies of a cognitive interview?

A

1) Reinstating context
2) Reporting every detail
3) Changing order
4) Changing perspective

114
Q

In what 2 ways does a cognitive interview differ from a standard interview?

A

1) Avoids direct questioning
2) Encourages individuals to recreate original context to increase recall

115
Q

What 4 ways is a cognitive interview thought to work?

A

1) Observed info can be retrieved through a number of details
2) Increases recall- varied routes
3) Encoding specificity principle explains effectiveness of reinstating context
4) Reduce pre-existing schemas

115
Q

What is mental reinstatement?

A

Interviewer encourages the interviewee to mentally recreate physical & psychological environment of the incident- cues

116
Q

What is report everything?

A

Encourage reporting every detail of event without editing, even if it seems irrelevant- recollection of one item may cue more info & forms clearer picture of event

117
Q

What is change order?

A

Alternate timeline of incident when reporting- hinders schema’s influence of recollection of event

118
Q

What is change perspective?

A

Interviewee asked to recall incident from multiple perspectives e.g. other witnesses- disrupts schema influence

119
Q

What did Kohnken et al (1999) research & find with CI’s?

A

A meta analysis of 53 studies- found an increase by 34% in correct info generated from CI’s compared to standard interviews

120
Q

What 2 CI components are most impactful as suggested by who?

A

Report everything & mental reinstatement- Milne & Bull

121
Q

What were Kohnken et al’s (1999) findings?

A

61% ↑ in incorrect info, 81% ↑ in accurate info when using enhanced CI

122
Q

What age group are CI’s particularly useful for?

A

Older people- mean age 72

123
Q

What are 2 strengths of using CI’s?

A

1) Increases amount of correct info recalled
2) Particularly effective with older adults

124
Q

What are 4 limitations of using CI’s?

A

1) Problems in practice- time consuming & training needed
2) Doesn’t guarantee accuracy
3) Difficult to assess effectiveness
4) Effectiveness may be due to some elements, not all

A-Level Psychology Year 1 (13 decks)

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