Approaches in Psychology (Origins, Behaviourist, SLT, Cognitive)- TB Flashcards
1
Q
O: What is knowledge?
A
Information that we already have or can gain
2
Q
O:What is evidence?
A
Proof that supports or criticises a hypothesis or knowledge
3
Q
O: What was Wilhelm Wundt’s aim?
A
To study the structure of the mind by breaking down behaviour to basic elements (Structuralism) by using introspection
4
Q
O: What is empricism?
A
A belief that knowledge is gained through experience
5
Q
O: What is introspection?
A
The process by which a person gains knowledge about their own emotional state by noting conscious thoughts & feelings
6
Q
O: What is scientific method?
A
Refers to use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic & replicable
7
Q
O: What is structuralism?
A
Breaking down behaviour into its basic elements
8
Q
O: How did Wundt formulate general theories of human perception?
A
Using introspection and training their mental processes
9
Q
O: What 3 things does the scientific method refer to investigations as being?
A
1) Objective
2) Systematic
3) Replicable
10
Q
O: What are two assumptions that the scientific approach is made on?
A
1) Determinism- all behaviour has a cause
2) Predictability- it is possible to predict behaviour in different conditions
11
Q
O: What is an objective investigation?
A
Researchers don’t let preconcieved data or biases influence the collection of their data
12
Q
O: What is a systematic investigation?
A
Observations or experiments are carried out in an orderly way
13
Q
O: What is a replicable investigation?
A
Observations can be repeated by other researchers to determine whether the same results are obtained- helping reliability
14
Q
O: What are 2 criticisms of Wundt’s research?
A
1) Not reliably reproduced by other researchers
2) Relied on non-observable responses e.g. memory
15
Q
O: How do Nisbett & Wilson (1977) challenge introspective reports?
A
They claim we have very little knowledge of the causes of and process underlying our behaviour & attitudes- so people are unaware of what’s influencing them
16
Q
O: When was Nisbett & Wilson’s study and what did it do?
A
1977- challenged introspective reports
17
Q
O: What are 2 strengths of the origins of psychology & Wundt’s work?
A
1) Can establish cause & effect due to control over variables in lab studies
2) Still useful today e.g. Csekszentmihalyi & Hunter (2003)- able to understand momentary situations that make people happy
18
Q
O: What are 3 limitations of the origins of psychology & Wundt’s work?
A
1) Unreliable & inconsistent
2) Artificial lab experiments- lacks ecological validity and can’t be generalised
3) Nisbett & Wilson (1977)- challenged introspective reports
19
Q
B: What is the behaviourist approach?
A
The belief that all behaviour is learned via classical or operant conditioning
20
Q
B: What is the behaviourist approach referred to as?
A
Learning theory
21
Q
B: What is most research on learning theory carried out as?
A
Lab experiments
22
Q
B: What did Pavlov discover and when?
A
The process of classical conditioning-1927
23
Q
B: What is the natural stimulus?
A
The unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
24
Q
B: What was the UCS in Pavlov’s experiment?
A
Food
25
B: What is the natural response to the UCS?
Unconditioned response (UCR)
26
B: What was the UCR in Pavlov's experiment?
Salivation
27
B: What is the acquisition phase?
Where the neutral stimulus (NS) is presented shortly before the UCS and they are paired after a while
28
B: What is the neutral stimulus (NS) and what was it is Pavlov's experiment?
A stimulus that doesn't elicit the UCR- A bell
29
B: What does the NS become and when?
The conditioned stimulus (CS)- when the NS produces the same response in absence of the UCS
30
B: What response does the CS cause, and what were they in Pavlov's experiment?
Conditioned response (CR)- CS= bell, CR= salivation
31
B: What are 4 important features of classical conditioning?
1) Timing
2) Extinction
3) Spontaneous recovery
4) Stimulus generalisation
32
B: Why is timing an important factor of classical conditioning?
If the NS cannot be used to predict the UCS (time interval too large) then conditioning doesn't occur
33
B: Why is extinction an important factor of classical conditioning?
The CR doesn't become permanently established as a response- so after a while of the CS being in absence of the UCS it loses its ability to present the CR
34
B: Why is spontaneous recovery an important factor of classical conditioning?
Following extinction, if the CS & UCS are paired again the link is made more quickly
35
B: Why is stimulus generalisation an important factor of classical conditioning?
Once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS
35
B: What are 3 key aspects of the behaviorist approach?
1) Rejected introspection as vague
2) Focus is on observable behaviour only
3) Assumes learning follows the same principles in all species
36
B: What is classical conditioning?
Learning through association- involving an innate reflex response
37
B: What is operant conditioning?
Learning through reinforcement - shaping behaviour through consequences
38
B: What is positive reinforcement?
Adding a pleasant consequence to a behaviour- increasing the likelihood of it occurring
39
B: What is negative reinforcement?
Taking away something unpleasant- increasing the likelihood of it occurring
40
B: What is punishment?
An unpleasant consequence to a behaviour- decreasing the likelihood of it occurring
41
B: What is positive punishment?
Adding an unpleasant consequence- decreasing the likelihood of it occurring
42
B: What is negative punishment?
Taking away something pleasant
43
B: What is reinforcement?
A positive consequence to a behaviour- increasing the likelihood of it occurring
44
B: What did Skinner do?
Discovered operant conditioning
45
B: What are 2 strengths of the behaviourist approach?
1) Systematic desensitisation
2) Research (Skinner) used experimental methods
46
B: What is systematic desensitisation?
A therapy based on classical conditioning- eliminates anxious responses with relaxing ones, effective on phobias
47
B: How is systematic desensitisation a strength of classical conditioning?
Real world application- reduces anxiety
48
B: Why is Skinner's experimental method a strength of his research into the behaviourist approach?
Controlled variables, could establish a cause & effect relationship between consequences of behaviour and future frequency of its occurrance
49
B: What are 3 limitations of the behaviourist approach?
1) Seligman's preparedness hypothesis
2) Limited approach
3) Research based on animal studies
50
B: Why is Seligman's preparedness hypothesis a limitation of the behaviourist approach?
Suggests CC is only appropriate for some learning
51
B: What is Seligman's preparedness hypothesis?
Animals are prepared to learn associations significant to survival needs, not prepared to learn associations insignificant to survival needs
52
B: Why is the behaviourist approach argued as being limited?
Ignore other levels of explanations e.g. those that emphasise importance of cognitive factors (schema) or emotional states
53
B: What did Skinner argue about the criticism that the behaviourist approach is limited?
That cognitive factors and emotional states are untestable scientifically
54
B: Why is research (Skinner) being based on animal studies a limitation of the behaviourist approach?
Skinner's findings can't be generalised for human behaviour as humans have free will rather than our behaviour being determined by + or - reinforcement like other animals- over reliance on non-human animals
55
B: How did Skinner respond to the criticism about his animal studies?
Suggested free will is an illusion- behaviours are a product of external influences that guide our behaviour on a daily basis
56
SLT: What is social learning theory?
The modern behaviourist approach to explaining behaviour- acknowledges operant & classical but also allows for cognitive processes in learning (learning through observation of of others and imitating rewarded behaviours)
57
SLT: What does social learning theory allow that the other behaviourist approach doesn't? e.g.
Cognitive processes e.g. observation & imitation of others
58
SLT: What is the key study of social learning theory?
Bandura et al (1961)
59
SLT: What were 3 key points of Bandura et al's (1961) procedure?
1) Included children who observed aggressive or non-aggressive adult models- aggressive would hit & verbal aggression to bobo doll
2) Children shown toys they can't play with- frustration
3) Taken into a room with toys & boo doll & tested children for imitative learning in absence of the model
60
SLT: What were Bandura et al's (1961) findings?
1/3 of aggressive viewers showed verbal aggression and most reproduced physical aggression too
0% of non-aggressive viewers showed verbal aggression
Follow up- Bandura & Walters found more aggression if children viewed a reward for aggression (vicarious reinforcement)
61
SLT: What was the fundamental belief of the social learning theory approach?
As well as learning through direct experience, we learn through observation & imitation of a behaviour too
62
SLT: What is modelling?
A form of learning in which a person (model) performs a behaviour & another individual observes them
63
SLT: What do mediational processes do?
Enable the observer to store mental representations of a behaviour & its probable consequences (expectations & future outcomes)- occurs during observation
64
SLT: What is imitation?
Process of copying an observed behaviour- more likely if identification takes place
65
SLT: What does identification do?
Increases likelihood of imitation
66
SLT: What is vicarious reinforcement?
Increased likelihood of imitation of aggressive behaviour if the observer observes a reward for a behaviour than observers who saw the same behaviour punished
67
SLT: What are the 4 mediational processes?
1) Attention
2) Retention
3) Motivation
4) Motor reproductions
68
SLT: Which 2 mediational processes occur when learning?
1) Attention
2) Retention
69
SLT: Which 2 mediational processes occur during performance?
1) Motivation
2) Motor reproductions
70
SLT: What is attention (mediational process)?
Paying attention/ observing the model
71
SLT: What is retention (mediational process)?
Trying to retain information observed
72
SLT: What is motivation (mediational process)?
Why are they doing it?- End goal
73
SLT: What is motor reproduction (mediational process)?
Can they do it/ have the ability to do it
74
SLT: What are 3 strengths of social learning theory & explain briefly?
1) Real world application- criminals more likely if exposed to criminal models
2) Research support- Bandura, Fox- similar models ↑ imitation- identification
3) Importance of identification- very important
75
SLT: What are 2 limitations of social learning theory & explain briefly?
1) Problem establishing causality- deviant attitude before contact with peers caused delinquency- not peer contact itself
2) Ignores other influences- disregards other influences on behaviour, difficult to show one particular thing (social learning) is the main causal influence
76
SLT: What research method does SLT use?
Experimental method
77
SLT: What does SLT allow for?
Free will & cognitive processes
78
SLT: What is SLT based on?
Nurture
79
SLT: Explain real world application as a strength of SLT
Increases understanding of human behaviour, as criminals were more likely to be criminals when exposed to criminals- vicarious reinforcement for criminal behaviour- money=reward
80
SLT; Explain research support as a strength of SLT
Fox & Bailenson (2009) generated virtual humans- either exercising or loitering, some looked like participants, others didn't- found more people exercised, and higher identification increased learning SUPPORTS IDENTIFICATION
81
SLT: Explain importance of identification as a strength of SLT
Real world application too- health campaigns matched models to target audience, message more effective if identification is possible- SUPPORTS IDENTIFICATION
82
SLT: What are 2 criticisms of Bandura et al's research?
1) Demand characteristics
2) Low ecological validity
83
SLT: Explain problem of establishing causality as a limitation of SLT
Siegel & McCormick (2006) suggest people are innately deviant, and seek out peers with similar attitudes- so they possessed the deviant attitudes before contact with deviant peers
84
SLT: Explain ignoring other influences as a limitation of SLT
It disregards other potential influences & is difficult to show 1 particular thing (social learning) is the main causal influence as other influences (biological factors- mirror neurons) may affect it
85
C: What is the fundamental belief of the cognitive approach?
Behaviour is the result of internal mental processes that operate together e.g. schemas
86
C: What 4 areas does the cognitive approach include?
1) Memory
2) Perception
3) Problem solving
4) Thinking
87
C: What does the cognitive approach consider and refer to?
Internal mental processes & the information processing model
88
C: What do the explanations of the cognitive approach include?
The use of computer metaphors e.g. encoding, retrieval & storage
89
C: What method does the cognitive approach use?
Experimental methods
90
C: What is a schema?
A framework in the brain that organises and interprets information, excluding things that don't conform to established ideas as well as filling in gaps where information is missing- forming stereotypes
91
C: What are theoretical models (cognitive approach)?
Tools for explaining the implications of ideas, powerful ways of generating & testing hypotheses about mind & behaviour based on research
92
C; What are computer models (cognitive approach)?
Metaphor/analogies to understand & model the way the mind works & how sensory information is encoded
93
C: What are computer programs & simulations used for (cognitive approach)?
Testing theories of cognition
94
C: What is involved in the study of cognitive neuroscience?
Studying brain structures involved in mental processing through mental imaging techniques- showing what part of the brain are active & involved in specific circumstances
95
C: What techniques are used to study which part of the brain are active?
PET & MRI scans
96
C: What are 2 strengths of the cognitive approach to psychology?
1) It has many applications
2) It has a scientific approach
97
C: How is it having many applications a strength of the cognitive approach?
Used in other areas of psychology (Social and Psychopathology) leading to successful treatment of disorders (OCD) using cognitive based interventions
98
C: What 2 areas of psychology has the cognitive approach be applied & how?
1) Social- understand how we interpret others' actions & form impressions
2) Psychopathology- how much of dysfunctional behaviour can be traced to faulty thinking processes
99
C: How is it having a scientific approach a strength of the cognitive approach?
Experimental methods provide researchers with a rigorous method for collecting & evaluating evidence & reaching accurate conclusions on how the mind works, rather than based on introspection which is misleading
100
C: What are 3 limitations of the cognitive approach?
1) Computer models have limited explanatory powers
2) Ignores the role of emotion & motivated
3) Lacks ecological validity
101
C: How is computer models having limited explanatory powers a limitations of the cognitive approach?
Humans make mistakes & forget information- computers don't & so limits the appropriateness of explaining human thought & behaviour using computer models
102
C: Explain ignoring the role of emotion & motivation as a limitation of the cognitive approach
Explained by over-dependence on information processing analogies as computers don't need motivation
103
C; How does the cognitive approach lack ecological validity (limitation)?
Tasks that have little in common with participants in common with participants natural everyday experiences (Artificial) are used and findings cannot be generalised to real life situations
