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A-Level Psychology Year 1 > Attachment- Infant & caregiver, animal studies, explanations of At., SS, Type of At., Cultural variations- TB > Flashcards

Attachment- Infant & caregiver, animal studies, explanations of At., SS, Type of At., Cultural variations- TB Flashcards

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1
Q

What is attachment?

A

A close bond between two people that serves the function of protection of the infant

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2
Q

What are 5 needs for attachment formation that could hinder it too?

A

1) (Consistency of) Care
2) Sensitivity
3) Good health
4) Sight
5) Hearing

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3
Q

What are 5 attachment behaviors?

A

1) Separation protest
2) Proximity seeking
3) Stranger anxiety
4) Safe/secure base effect
5) Pleasure at reunion

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4
Q

What are 4 features of reciprocity?

A

1) Coordination
2) Eliciting responses (non-verbal)
3) Important for later communication - carer learns about infant’s needs
4) Foundation for later attachments

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5
Q

What are 2 features of interactional synchrony?

A

1) Imitation
2) Innate (not learned)

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6
Q

What is reciprocity?

A

When an action or actions elicit coordinated responses and non-verbal conversation between infants and caregivers which is a foundation for later attachment between them.

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7
Q

What is interactional synchrony?

A

Where infants imitate actions of another: proven by Meltzoff & Moore’s imitation experiment 1977

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8
Q

What is proximity seeking?

A

The desire to be physically close to the carer

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9
Q

What is separation protest?

A

Distress at separation from carer

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10
Q

What is pleasure at reunion?

A

Quickly settled upon being reunited with carer

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11
Q

What is safe/secure base effect?

A

Willingness to explore environment when carer is near. infant will check regularly that carer is near to know whether it’s safe or not

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12
Q

What is stranger anxiety?

A

Distress at stranger interaction (in safer environments infants may approach a stranger)

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13
Q

What is Schaffer and Emerson’s first stage in their theory of the development of attachment?

A

From birth-2 months
“Indiscriminate (asocial) attachments”
A similar response to all objects and a greater preference to people at end of stage as well as interactional synchrony and reciprocity playing a role in developing attachments

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14
Q

What is Schaffer and Emerson’s second stage of the development of attachment?

A

From 2-4 months
“Beginnings of attachment/ indiscriminate”
Seek attention from a number of people- no stranger anxiety

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15
Q

What is Schaffer and Emerson’s third stage of the development of attachment?

A

4-7 months
“Discriminate Attachment” or “Specific attachment”
Typically develop strong attachment to one person showing separation protest and stranger anxiety

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16
Q

What is Schaffer and Emerson’s 4th stage of attachment?

A

7-9 months
“Multiple attachments”
Strong emotional ties with other carers develop

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17
Q

Why might Schaffer and Emerson’s study have a BIASED SAMPLE?

A

1) Temporal validity/bias (1960’s)
2) Only working class families- one social group
3) Cultural bias (individualistic and collectivist culture)

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18
Q

What is monotropy?

A

Bowlby’s theory that infants develop one special emotional relationship/ attachment

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19
Q

Who challenged monotropy and how?

A

Rutter, he believed infants develop multiple equal attachments that combine to form overall attachment type

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20
Q

What is another social problem with Schaffer and Emerson’s study?

A

Doesn’t allow for individual differences

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21
Q

Why might Schaffer and Emerson’s study be UNRELIABLE?

A

1) Social desirability bias
2) Subjective opinions to babies actions (internal validity)

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22
Q

What were Schaffer and Emerson’s findings about father-infant relationships?

A

Father’s were less likely to be the primary attachment figure due to them being around the infant less

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23
Q

Who counter argued Schaffer and Emerson’s study?

A

Lamb- Reported that there was little relationship between father accessibility and infant-father attachment- quality more importsnt

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24
Q

What two factors might affect father-infant attachment?

A

1) Biology (lack of oestrogen)
2) Cultural expectations (feminine to stay at home and care)

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25
Q

What did Frank and Frodi individually find?

A

Frank found that fathers could be primary attachment, but biological and social factors discourage it, and Frodi found that there was no physiological difference between men and women’s reactions to a crying infant video

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26
Q

Why could men being less sensitive be positive?

A

It fosters problem solving as it makes the infants have greater communication and higher cognitive demands

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27
Q

What did Grossman and Varissimo find?

A

1) Quality of mother- infant attachment affects infants adolescence
2) Quality of father- infant attachment affects childhood friendships

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28
Q

What is a benefit of a strong father- infant attachment?

A

Better social skills

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29
Q

Why is it hard to establish significance of father- infant attachments?

A

Can’t be put into correlational data as other factors (social or economic) have an effect on problematic behaviors too

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30
Q

What are the 2 key studies in animal studies of attachment?

A

1) Harlow’s Monkeys (1959)
2) Lorenz’s geese (1935)

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31
Q

What were 2 conditions made by Harlow?

A

1) Cloth monkey mother
2) Wire monkey mother

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32
Q

What was Harlow studying?

A

Safe base effect and proximity seeking

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33
Q

What were Harlow’s findings?

A

The monkeys spent most of their time with the cloth mother despite it not having the feeding bottle, and only went to the wired mother for food & clung to the cloth mother when frightened

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34
Q

What was Harlow’s aim?

A

To investigate the basis of attachment

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35
Q

What are the 2 explanations of attachment?

A

1) Learning theory (behaviourist)
2) Bowlby’s monotropic theory (evolutionary)

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36
Q

What does learning theory suggest?

A

That attachment is learned, not innate & that food is the basis of attachment

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37
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Attachment by association, where the carer is associated to food (food is good so carer is good)- involuntary behaviour

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38
Q

What do the abbreviations stand for in classical conditioning and what are they in attachment?

A

UCR= Unconditioned response- Happiness
UCS= Unconditioned stimulus- Food
NS= Neutral stimulus- Carer
CS= Conditioned stimulus- Carer after pairing
CR= Conditioned response- Happiness

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39
Q

What are the steps to classical conditioning?

A

UCS=UCR
NS=no response
Paired UCS & NS=UCR
CS=CR

40
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

Attachment by reinforcement, where food is the primary reinforcer & the provider of food s the secondary reinforcer

41
Q

What is positive reinforcement?

A

Adding something positive (food)

42
Q

What is negative reinforcement?

A

Removing something negative (removing hunger)

43
Q

What are 3 criticisms of learning theory?

A

1) Based on animal studies
2) Attachment isn’t just based on food
3) Simplistic

44
Q

What is a strength of learning theory?

A

1) Explanatory power- infants do learn by association & reinforcement

45
Q

What is punishment?

A

An undesirable consequence following a behaviour- making it less likely to occur

46
Q

What does Bowlby’s monotropy theory suggest?

A

That attachment is innate & evolutionary- about survival

47
Q

What are 4 things Bowlby’s monotropy theory involves/suggests?

A

1) Has a critical period (3-6 months)
2) Social releases used to encourage it
3) Template for future relationships- Internal working model & continuity hypothesis
4) One significant attachment

48
Q

What 2 studies support Bowlby’s theory?

A

1) Hazan & Shaver (1987)- Continuity hypothesis
2) Sproufe (2006)- Minnesota parent-child study

49
Q

What are 5 criticisms of Bowlby’s theory?

A

1) Sensitive period, not critical
2) If it’s adaptive, why doesn’t it start until 3-6 months
3) Multiple attachments vs monotropic model- multiple form IWM
4) Schaffer & Emerson- multiple attachments were the norm (1/3 fathers too)
5) Kagan’s temperament hypothesis

50
Q

What is the multiple attachment model?

A

All attachments are equal & merge to one attachment style

51
Q

What is Kagan’s temperament hypothesis?

A

An infant’s innate emotional personality explains attachment behaviour

52
Q

What was Hazan & Shaver’s experiment and when was it?

A

The love quiz (1987)

53
Q

What was Hazan & Shaver’s aim?

A

To test the internal working model

54
Q

What were Hazan & Shaver’s findings?

A

People’s attachment types in their early life were reflective to their current relationship style

55
Q

What was Ainsworth’s Strange situation’s aim?

A

To investigate and classify attachment type

56
Q

What was the procedure for Ainsworth’s Strange situation?

A

Involved 8 episodes, roughly 3 minutes each, with each stage measuring particular behaviours, the data was recorded using a video recorder using a one-way mirror

57
Q

What were the 8 episodes of the SS and what did they measure?

A

1) Parent & infant play
2) Parent sits while infant plays- secure base
3) Stranger enters & talks to parent- stranger anxiety
4) Parent leaves, infant plays & stranger offers comfort- separation anxiety
5) Parent returns, greets infant & offers comfort, stranger leaves- reunion behaviour
6) Parent leaves infant alone- separation anxiety
7) Stranger enters & offers comfort- stranger anxiety
8) Parent returns, greets infant & offers comfort- reunion behaviour

58
Q

What behaviours are measured in the SS?

A

Separation anxiety, stranger anxiety, reunion behaviour & exploratory behaviour

59
Q

What were Ainsworth’s findings?

A

1) 66% of US infants showed Secure attachment (Type B)
2) 22% of US infants show insecure- avoidant attachment (Type A)
3) 12% of US infants show insecure- resistant attachment (Type C)

60
Q

What were Ainsworth’s conclusions?

A

Most USA infants seemed to be securely attached

61
Q

What are 4 points about secure attachment (Type B)?

A

1) Infants with harmonious & cooperative interactions with the caregiver
2) Mild separation protests and stranger anxiety
3) Show safe base effect
4) Infant is quickly comforted & resettled on reunion with carer

62
Q

What are 4 points about insecure- avoidant attachment (Type A)

A

1) Avoid interaction & intimacy with others
2) Show little response to separation & don’t seek proximity from carer
3) Explore with or without caregiver being present
4) High levels of anxiousness

63
Q

What are 3 points about insecure- resistant attachment (Type C)?

A

1) Immediate & intense distress with separated from caregiver
2) Seeks intimacy & social interaction
3) Infants display conflicting desires for and against contact on reunion

64
Q

What are 3 criticisms of Ainsworth’s findings?

A

1) Fourth type of attachment (insecure- disorganised attachment, Type D)
2) Low internal validity- Can be argued it measures the quality of one particular relationship as infants behave differently with different parents so attachments may differ
3) Cross-cultural validity- Only US people so other cultures aren’t taken into account

65
Q

What are 2 strengths of Ainsworth’s findings?

A

1) Reliability of observations- nearly perfect agreement when rating explanatory power
2) Real world application- Cooper et al. Circle of Security Project

66
Q

What was Cooper et al.’s Circle of Security Project?

A

Taught caregivers to understand signals & distress if infant- Found that the number of disordered attachments decreased from 60 to 15% & secure attachments increasing from 32- 40%
Supports notion that research on attachment types can improve children’s lives

67
Q

What is meta-analysis?

A

When a researcher examines the findings of a number of studies and creates a statistic to represent the overall effect

68
Q

What is an individualistic culture?

A

A community that prioritises the individual over the community

69
Q

What is a collectivist culture?

A

The needs & goals of the group as a whole come first over the needs & desires of each individual

70
Q

What are cultural variations?

A

Different groups of people differ in relation to their social practices

71
Q

What does intra-cultural mean?

A

Differences of the findings within the same culture

72
Q

What does inter-cultural mean?

A

Differences of the findings between different cultures

73
Q

What is imposed etic?

A

A form of cultural bias when a researcher assumes a measuring tool can be measured in other cultures

74
Q

What did Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) do?

A

Conducted a meta-analysis of the findings of 32 countries which explored attachment behaviour- including 2000 studies that used the strange situation in over 8 countries

75
Q

What was the aim of Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg’s research?

A

To understand whether inter-cultural & intra-cultural variations existed

76
Q

What are 3 things Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg found on inter-cultural variation?

A

1) Small differences
2) Secure attachment was most common in all countries
3) Insecure-avoidant was second most common everywhere except for Japan & Israel

77
Q

What are 3 findings by Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg on intra-cultural variation?

A

1) Variation within cultures was 1.5 times greater than variation between cultures
2) Secure attachment was most common in all countries
3) Insecure-avoidant was 2nd most common in all countries apart from Japan & Israel

78
Q

What did Grossman & Grossman (1991) find to do with cultural differences?

A

Higher levels of insecure-avoidant attachment in German infants- due to different childcare practices & German culture

79
Q

What did Takahashi (1990) do?

A

Conducted strange situation with 60 Japanese infants- showed secure attachments but also high IRA, and 90% showed extreme stress so the study had to end

80
Q

What did Harlow conclude?

A

Attachment is based on care & comfort, not food

81
Q

What are 3 criticisms of Harlow’s study?

A

1) The mothers differed in more than just the material of them
2) Human’s differ in important ways compared to animals (sentient)
3) The study created lasting emotional & psychological harm on the monkeys (relationships, violence)

82
Q

What did Lorenz say about imprinting?

A

It has a 48 hour critical period, and is key for survival

83
Q

What was Lorenz’s aim?

A

To investigate the mechanisms of imprinting where the youngsters follow & form an attachment to the 1st large, moving object they meet

84
Q

What was Lorenz’s procedure?

A

Split eggs into 2 groups, 1 with mother & 1 with him, 2nd group met Lorenz first and followed him and attached to him

85
Q

What did Lorenz find?

A

1) Lorenz’s goslings showed no attachment to real mother
2) Critical period of 48hrs
3) Some animals won’t imprint on humans

86
Q

What were 2 long lasting effects of Lorenz’s study?

A

1) Irreversible process
2) Effected mating partners

87
Q

What is imprinting?

A

An innate readiness to develop a strong bond with the mother, during the first 48 hours of development

88
Q

What is a critical period?

A

A restriction to a very definite period where certain characteristics can develop

89
Q

What are 3 criticisms of research into cultural variations in attachment?

A

1) The sample may not represent the country, but the cultures within that country
2) Researcher bias- indigenous researcher needed
3) SS as a measuring tool- imposed etic- different cultures prefer different relationships e.g. Japan very dependent (insecure resistant)

90
Q

What did Lorenz conclude?

A

Imprinting is a form of attachment, exhibited mainly by nidifugous birds, whereby close contact is kept with the first large moving object

91
Q

What is the key study for the effects of instituionalisation?

A

Rutter & Sonuga-Barke- Romanian orphans study

92
Q

What was Rutter & Sonuga-Barke’s procedure?

A

Studied 165 Romanian orphans who spent their early life in institutions, 111 were adopted aged <2, the rest adopted before age 4
Tested them regularly for physical, cog. & emotional development (age 4, 6, 11 &15)

93
Q

What did Rutter & Sonuga-Barke find?

A

At time of adoption, they were behind british children, but age 4, some caught up & follow ups suggest sig. deficits are corrected

94
Q

What is concluded from Rutter & Sonuga-Barke’s research?

A

Long term consequences of institutionalisation are less severe than previously thought- IF child can form attachments, BUT if not, consequences are severe

95
Q

What are the 4 effects of institutionalisation?

A

1) Poor parenting
2) Physical underdevelopment
3) Disinhibited attachment
4) Intellectual under-functioning

96
Q

What are 2 strengths of research into institutionalisation?

A

1) Real world application- improved care of kids & children adopted asap
2) Longitudinal study- long-term effects known

97
Q

What are 3 limitations of research into institutionalisation?

A

1) Individual differences- Different experiences of institutionalisation e.g. some form attachments with workers
2) More issues than just deprivation
3) Ill effects reduced over time

A-Level Psychology Year 1 (13 decks)

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