Memory Flashcards
encoding
necessary but NOT sufficient for storage
*not everything registered on senses is stored
storage
necessary but NOT sufficient for retreival
what did Tulving and Thomson (1973) say about storage
‘only that can be retreived has been stored, and….how it can be retrieved depends on how long it has been stored’
what does Atkinson and Shiffrins (1968) modal model contain
- sensory stores
- short term memory
- longterm memory
what happens in the sensory stores (Atikinson and Shiffrin - modal model)
immediate, initial recording of sensory information
*modality specific (visual,auditory)
what happens in the short term memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin - modal model)
holds a few items briefly
- before info is stored or forgotten
- limited capacity
what happens in the long term memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin - modal model)
relatively permanent and limitless storehouse
what does Sperlings (1961) visual (iconic) sensory store invole
- whole report
* partial report
what happens in the whole report (Sperling - visual (iconic) sensory store)
- 4 items accuratley reported (33% of array)
* saw more but faded - rapid decau
what happens in the partial eport (Sperling visual (iconic) sensory store)
- Heard hi (1st row), medium (2nd) or low (3rd) tone
- immediate recall of identified row - 3 of 4 on row (75%)
- 1 sec delay pror to identifying row - little recall 1 correct (25% of row)
- rapidly decaying mental photograph
what happens in the auditory (echoic) sensory store (Treisman (1964)
- dichotic listening task
- 2 simultaneous messages
- 1 to each ear
- repeat one ignor
- same message
- noticed if unattendd message less than 2 seconds in advance of attended message
- retain info 2 secs - then lost
what happens in the STM
- items currently focus on attention (ie info from sensory store)
- info in LTM that is currently activated
what is the capacity of the STM - digit-span
- hear random digits, repeat back in order
- span = no. recalled in order 50% of trials
- normal adults = approx 7
what did Miller (1956) say about the capacity of the STM
“unaided” capacity magical number 7 +/-2
*increase by chunking
what did Simon (1972) say about the capacity of the STM
- not necessarily 7+/-2 chunks
- depends on size of chunks
- can recall 7 one and two-syllable words
- BUT only 4 two-word and 3 eight-word phrases
what did Atikinson and Shiffrin (1971) say about the duration of the STM
- 15-30s unaided
- increased by rehearsal
- appears to involve speech (acoustic)
- keep info circulating in STM?
- easily interupted by external or internal distractions
what did Peterson and Peterson (1959) say about forgetting in the STM - Decay
- 3-letter stimuls = 3-digit number
- task - remember letters whilst counting back in 3s from number - prevents rehearsal
- rapid decay after a few seconds - forgetting curve
forgetting in the STM - displacement
capacity 7+/_ 2
- additional items displaced current info
- arguably most important
what did Craik and Lockgart (1972) say about transfer from STM-LTM - levels of processing hypothesis for maintenance rehearsal
- mere repetition does not aid transfer to LTM
* shallow processing means thinking about physical characteristics of the stimulus
what did Craik and Lockgart (1972) say about transfer from STM-LTM - levels of processing hypothesis for elaborative rehearsal
- deeper processing - forming associations, attend to meaning, thinking about new info ect.
- more likely to result in transfer of info from STM to LTM
how did Hyde and Jenkins (1973) test intention and depth of processing
*depth of processing:
deep=rate pleasantness
shallow=does word contain a “Q” or an “A”
*intention to learn:
incidental memory task: you dont know a test is coming
intentional memory task:you are forewarned about the test
what did Hyde and Jenkins (1973) find about intention and depth of processing
- depth has a big effect
2. intent doesnt matter
what does Morris, Bransford and Franks (1977) say about whether deep encoding always leeds to better memory
when processes are the same at encoding and retrieval, then memory will be successful; when the processes are different at encoding and retrieval, then memory will not be successful
what is the capacity of the LTM - Atkinson and Shiffrer model
unlimited
what coding occurs in the LTM
- primarily semantic
- lists to remember
- recall in category clusters
- visual - pictorial
- acoustic - songs
- olfactory - smells
what did Nickerson (1965) say about the coding of the visual LTM
- visual LTM: 600 pictures
- tested recognition - 1 day to 1 year
- interspersed new/old items - 1 day - 92% correct, 1 year - 63% correct
what are the distinctions in the LTM
episodic memory semantic memory explicit memory implicit memory prospective memory retrospective memory
what happens in the episodic memory - LTM
provides us with a record of our life experiences - events stored there are autobiographical
what happens in the semantic memory - LTM
conceptual information such as general knowledge - a long-term store of data, facts and information
what happens in the explicit memory - LTM
memory for information we are aware of learning - retrieval of this info requires active recollection
what happens in the implicit memory - LTM
memory for info that is unintentionally learned and doesnt rely on recognition/recall of any specific learning episode
what happens in the prospective memory - LTM
remembering to do something in the future
what happens in the retrospective memory - LTM
memory for the past events and knowledge
what are the types of inference in the LTM
retroactive inference
proactive inference
what is retroactive inference - LTM
newly acquired info interferes with access to old info
what is proactive interference - LTM
past information interferes with acquisition f new information
what are the types of effective retrieval cues
associative strength
encoding specificity
what is associative strength
increases with frequency of association of cue
what is encoding specificity
how much info is encoded
what did Godden and Baddeley (1975) say about the encoding specificity
*words learnt in the same environment as tested in are recalled better than words learnt in a different environment
eg of state dependent memory
what is state dependent memory
environment/moods/emotional state matches when material learned
eg. Cognitive Interviews
what did Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) identify when looking for evidence for STM/LTM distinction
- serial position curve
- primacy effect
- recency effect
what is the serial position curve (Glanzer and Cunitz)
free recall of list of words (any order)
what is the primacy effect (Glanzer and Cunitz)
first few recalled well (rehearsed into LTM)
what is the recency effect (Glanzer and Cunitz)
last few recalled well (still in STM)
what are egs of neuropsychological modal model in amnesic patients- STM ok, transfer to LTM impaired
- Korsakoffs Syndrome - alcoholism
* Milner (1966) - HM epilepsy
what are egs of neuropsychological modal model in amnesic patients- poor STM, normal LTM
- Shallice and Warrington (1970) - KF - accident
- normal LTM after accident - poor digit span ,2
what does double dissociation suggest
different mechanisms involved
what are the 3 problems with the model in terms of it being over simplified
- assumption: single STM store and single LTM score
- Emphasis on rehearsal
- emphasis on structural considerations (space available) not processing constraints (resources available)
expand on problem 1 - single stores
- KF: impaired verbal STM (words, digits) NOT for other meaningful sounds (phone ringing)
- inconsistant with single store STM model
expand on problem 2 - emphasis on rehearsal
- important word lists - rare everyday life
- doesnt prevent acquisition of nnew info
- less important claimed by model
what are the 4 types of evidence for the modal model
- temporal duration
- storage capacity
- encoding process
- forgetting mechanism
expand on evidence 1 - temporal duration
fraction of a sec (iconic store), 2-3 secs (echoic store)
*STM (unrehearsed) - 15-20secs? LTM-lifetime?
expand on evidence 2 - storage capacity
STM 7+/- items, LTM unlimited
expand on evidence 3 - encoding process
no active processing for sensory scores - STM attention;LTM rehearsal
expand on evidence 4 - forgetting mechanism
sensory via decay; STM via displacement and decay; LTM inaccessibility?
what was Shiffrin (1993) alternative ti the STM as the STM is more complex than stated in the multi-store model
- has 3 components
- tempory activation, control process and capacity limitations
- limited capacity due to processing limitations more than storage limitations
what was Baddeley and HItch’s (1974) alternative to the STM
working memory model
what happens in the Central executive - WMM
- modality free
- resembles attention
- deals with any cognitively demanding task
- uses slave systems
what happens in the phonological loop - WMM
- hold info in speech-based form
* basis of verbal rehearsal
what happens in the viso-spatial sketchpad - WMM
*specialised for spatial and visual coding and manipulation
what happens in the episodic buffer - WMM
- added in an updated model
- temporary storage system
- holds and integrates information from phonological loop, visuo-spatialsketchpad, and LTM
what is little inference - Baddeley and Hitch (1976) - independent function
*little inference - simultaneous performance of two tasks requiring different resources
whats an eg of little inference Baddeley and Hitch (1976) - independent functioning
verbal reasoning task (central executive) and digit repetition (1-6) (articulatory loop)
what is inference - Baddeley and Hitch (1976) - independent functioning
simultaneous performance of two tasks requiring use of same resource
what is an eg of interference - Baddeley and Hitch (1976) - independent functioning
verbal reasoning task (CE and repeating sequence of 6 digits (CE and articulatory loop)
what are flash bulb memories
strong memory for events that are personally or socially important
*very emotional - vivid and detailed
what is post event information
does the wording of questions effect memory?
how did Loftus and Zanni (1994) study eye witness testomony
- video - multi vehicle crash
- ‘did you see a broken headlight’
- or ‘did you see the broken headlight’
- twice as likely to say ‘yes I saw the broken glass’ in the ‘the’ condition
what is misinformation effect
information introduced later can distort memory for witnessed events
how did Loftus and Palmer (1974) study eye witness testimony
*showed vid of car accidents
*asked to estimate the vehicles’ speeds when they:
contacted
hit
bumped
collided
smashed
