Memory 3 Flashcards
Who provided evidence for LoP on Encoding and Rehearsal?
Craik
What did Craik discover about LoP of Encoding?
As the depth of the processing task increases and gets more complicated, memory performance improves
Based on the Lop, what are the 2 types of rehearsals?
1) Type 1 = Maintenance rehearsal (rote repetition; the straight repeating of information to memorize it)
2) Type 2 = Elaborative rehearsal (repeating whilst linking new information to what one already knows, making connections between things, processing things deeply)
What is type 2 (Elaborative rehearsal) associated with based on the LoP?
Increased retention
Who conducted an experiment by asking participants to recall the last words on a list beginning with ‘g’?
Craik and Watkins
What did Craik and Watkins discover in the experiment?
The amount of rehearsal had no effect on subsequent recall
(AKA. The amount of maintenance rehearsal (rote rehearsal) does not affect recall)
“The amount of rehearsal had no effect on subsequent recall” What does this suggest?
Only Type 2/ Elaborative rehearsal has an effect on increased retention
What did Craik and Tulving discover about subsequent developments?
Elaboration effect
What happened in Craik and Tulving’s experiment investigating the elaboration effect?
1) Ps were put in 2 conditions to perform semantic orientation tasks
- Group 1/Low elaboration = Straight-forward sentences with a blank, must fill in the blank with a word
- Group 2/High elaboration = Sentences that require thinking and elaboration with a blank, must fill in the blank with a word
2) Findings = High elaboration led to better retention/performance on the subsequent recall test
High elaboration leads to (better/worse) retention/performance on the subsequent recall test
Better
Why does high elaboration lead to better retention/performance on the subsequent recall test?
Because elaborative processing increases the number of associations between stimulus and context
What are the main problems of LoP?
- It is quite a circular explanation/theory (Better memory leads to individuals processing things more deeply but also deeper processing results in better memory)
- Does not define “depth” well (What is considered a deep processing task, how do you measure the depth?)
How do you break the circularity in the LoP?
Must have an independent measure of depth
Apart from the circulatory and poor definition of depth, what are the other criticisms of LoP?
1) Weak theoretical power (is only good at explaining results after you get them but has no good predictions)
2) It does not really explain anything about memory systems (not a model like the modal model)
3) Does not define elaboration well, similar to depth (What is considered high elaboration, and how do we measure it?)
4) “Shallow” tasks involve automatic semantic processing (difficult to predict whether shallow tasks produce poor memory because you have not processed info deeply enough)
What did Morris, Bransford and Franks discover about semantic and phonological orienting tasks and recognition test tasks?
Deep processing (Semantic) improves new word recognition, supports LoP effect
But deep processing (Semantic) worsens rhyming recognition
Conclusion = deep processing does not always enhance memory
Who proposed transfer-appropriate processing (TAP)?
Morris, Bransford and Franks
What is transfer-appropriate processing (TAP)?
Memory performance depends on the extent to which processes used at the time of learning are the same as those used when memory is tested (the way you learn must match the way you are tested on)
(AKA Deep orienting tasks/semantic will generally produce better performance but only if the test task engages in the same “deep” processes)
What can we store in the LTS?
- Episodes (past experiences/events)
- Knowledge (facts, word meaning, categories)
- Skills and ability (effects of past experiences)
What model explains what the different types of memory systems are and their degree of conscious awareness?
Tulving Model
What are the memory systems in the Tulving Model?
1) Episodic
2) Semantic
3) Procedural
What are the degrees of conscious awareness in the Tulving Model?
1) Autonoetic (memory that is aware of itself, its origin and contents)
2) Noetic (memory that is aware of its contents but not aware of its origin)
3) Anoetic (memory that is not aware of its origin and contents; unaware)
What is the term used to describe a degree of conscious awareness, in the Tulving model, that is aware of its origins and contents?
Autonoetic
What is the term used to describe a degree of conscious awareness, in the Tulving model, that is not aware of its origins but is aware of its contents?
Noetic
What is the term used to describe a degree of conscious awareness, in the Tulving model, that is not aware of its origins and is unable to be described how to do it/ can only be demonstrated?
Anoetic
Which memory system is Autonoetic?
Episodic
Which memory system is Noetic?
Semantic
Which memory system is Anoetic?
Procedural
Why is episodic memory autonoetic?
- Episodic memory is based on what you remember of past events and experiences
- You are aware of how you got the memory/origin and what happened/contents
Why is semantic memory noetic?
- Semantic memory is based on what you remember of knowledge and facts
- You are unaware of how you got the memory/origin but are aware of what the knowledge is about/contents
Why is procedural memory anoetic?
- Procedural memory is based on what you remember of skills and abilities
- You are unaware of how you got the memory/origin and are unable to describe how to do it/you can only demonstrate
Episodic, semantic and procedural memories are (non-interactive/interactive) and defined by (….)
Interactive and defined by levels of conscious awareness
How do we save on memory storage?
By disconnecting info from the context in which it was learned (overtime, info becomes anoetic and procedural)
What did Tulving’s model contribute?
- Distinguish between memory systems and tests
- Some episodic tests can be influenced by non-episodic memory systems
What is considered explicit long-term memory (consciously recalled memory)?
1) Semantic
2) Episodic
3) Procedural
1) Semantic
2) Episodic
What is an explicit memory in the LTS?
Consciously recalled memory
What is an implicit memory in the LTS?
Memory that cannot be consciously recalled
What is considered implicit long-term memory (memory that cannot be consciously recalled)?
1) Semantic
2) Episodic
3) Procedural
Procedural
Apart from the procedural memory system, what else is considered an implicit memory in LTS?
Priming
What types of tests can be done to test semantic memory?
- Category fluency (name as many items as you can in this category)
- Matching tests (which item goes with this scenario)
Previously learnt semantic info is preserved; acquisition of new semantic knowledge is impaired. What term can be used to describe this?
Amnesia
Amnesia is when…?
Previously learnt semantic info is preserved and the acquisition of new semantic knowledge is impaired
Progressive loss of semantic knowledge but with a relatively intact anterograde episodic memory
(Can’t preserve semantic knowledge but can form new episodic memories)
What term can be used to describe this?
Semantic dementia
Semantic dementia is when…?
You can’t preserve semantic knowledge but you can form new episodic memories
What types of tests can be done to test episodic memory?
1) Free recall (e.g. list all words from the study phase)
2) Cued recall (e.g. list info based on a specific chapter when given a cue)
3) Recognition (e.g. was this particular word on the list?)
What term is used when you can’t make new episodic memories?
Anterograde Amnesia
What is the difference between recollection and familiarity?
Recollection = Do you remember this happening?
Familiarity = Do you recognise the event even if you don’t recall it happening?
What types of tests can be done to test procedural memory?
1) Skill learning:
- Pursuit rotor (tracking)
- Mirror drawing
What is priming?
When you process a stimulus faster because you’ve previously encountered stimuli which were the same or related to your target stimulus
e.g you see the words:
- Milk, Bread, Pasta and So_ p
- Bath, Towel, Face wash, So_p
In the food list you would immediately think of soup because it is related to grocery store items
In the bathroom list you would immediately think of soap because it is related to bathroom products
Improvement in speed/accuracy in processing a stimulus as a result of a prior encounter with the same or related stimuli. What term is used to describe this?
Priming
What types of tests can be done to test priming?
1) Perceptual identification (name object obscured by noise)
2) Word-stem completion (the first word that comes to mind when you see a few letters with blank spaces between them)
3) Sentence completion
Give an example of a patient with amnesia who can still learn to perform procedural tasks despite lacking episodic memory for training
HM = mirror drawing
Describe the mirror drawing experiment that tested HM’s abilities (Milner et al.)
- HM was instructed to draw a shape on a piece of paper by only looking at the mirror in front of him
- He does this every day but never remembers meeting Milner or doing the drawing
- Stats show that his drawing improves gradually every day
What does HM’s mirror drawing task results suggest?
A patient with amnesia can still learn to perform procedural tasks despite lacking episodic memory for training
- Although HM doesn’t remember practising the mirror drawing every day, his drawing skills still improved
Which patient shows intact perceptual priming?
Amnesic patients (e.g. HM)
Which patient shows normal declarative memory (can recall info) but impaired perceptual priming?
Patients with right occipital lobe resection (e.g. MS)
Who said, “the existence of forgetting has never been proved: we only know that some things don’t come to mind when we want them to.”
Nietzsche
Who stimulated the temporal lobes of patients which elicited trivial memories?
Penfield
What did Penfield do which supports the idea that we never forget?
- He zaps patients’ brains to ensure that he does not remove peoples’ language centres when performing surgery to remove seizures
- When he zaps the temporal lobes, patients often blurt out experiences they thought they had forgotten
What did Penfield’s experiment suggest about forgetting?
The brain retains a permanent record of all experiences but sometimes we fail to retrieve it when we want to
Who thought of the forgetting curve?
Ebbinghaus
How did Ebbinghaus measure forgetting?
Measuring time required to relearn a list of words after a long interval
What were the 2 early hypotheses supporting the theory of forgetting?
1) Decay
2) Inteference
What did the early hypothesis of “Decay” claim about forgetting?
Memory simply fades with time
What did the early hypothesis of “Interference” claim about forgetting?
Memory traces are disrupted or replaced by subsequent/prior learning
Who conducted the cockroach study?
Minami and Dallenbach
What did Minami and Dallenbach do in the cockroach study?
1) Train cockroaches to avoid electric shock
2) There were 2 conditions:
Group 1 = Cockroaches were allowed to move freely for 24 hours
Group 2 = Cockroaches were immobilised (crawl into a dark cone) for 24 hours
3) Findings = 70% of free cockroaches forgot that they were supposed to avoid the shock whereas 25% of immobilised cockroaches forgot
What did the results of Minami and Dallenbach’s cockroach study suggest?
The interference of moving around in the world is a possible explanation for most of our forgetting (if we sit still and never go out we might have a better memory?)
What was the purpose of Minami and Dallenbach’s cockroach study?
To see whether moving around or staying in one place could interfere with our memory performance
What does retroactive interference suggest?
Later learning disrupts earlier learning
According to the retroactive interference, the more new information you learn, the (better/worse) your memory of earlier knowledge gets
Worse
Who conducted an experiment to test for retroactive interference?
Slamecka
What is a limitation of Slamecka’s retroactive interference experiment?
Memory was mostly tested based on the number of intervening trials (the number of new info get given to you) and not so much time (how long you can retain the info)
What is proactive interference?
Prior learning disrupts subsequent learning
What is proactive interference?
Prior learning disrupts subsequent learning
Who conducted an experiment to test for proactive interference?
Underwood; Underwood and Keppel
What did Underwood’s and Underwood and Keppel’s experiment to test for proactive interference discover?
1) Performance declines over successive study tests with similar stimuli
2) Performance recovers when you switch to dissimilar stimuli
(When the category changed after interference builds up, performance improves)
What actually leads to forgetting?
Interference (proactive or retroactive)
Why does interference lead to forgetting?
- Assume a cue has a fixed capacity for activating memories
- The more memories associated with that cue, the less well it can activate any of them
- On the flip side, if several possible memories share a similar overlap with the retrieval environment, successful recall is less likely
Who said “What kind of thing do you wish me to remember? It needs, in short, a cue.”
William James
What are the 2 major reasons for forgetting according to Tulving?
1) Trace-dependent forgetting (decay)
2) Cue-dependent forgetting (failure to retrieve)
What is cue-dependent forgetting?
When you forget info but as soon as you’re provided with sufficient cues, you are able to retrieve the “lost/forgotten” info
What evidence support cue-dependent forgetting?
1) Retrieval performance improves with cueing
2) Retroactive interference is weaker with cueing (suggests RI only affects recall and not other types of memory)
Why does retrieval performance improve with cueing?
- Tulving assumed that when we store info about an event, we also store info about its context
- That’s why when we receive a cue related to the context of the info we stored on a recognition task, we are able to recall the info
What did Tulving and Psotka’s experiment discover about interference?
Recall declines as the number of word lists presented after the original learning list increases (retroactive interference; later learning disrupts earlier learned info)
Does retroactive or proactive recall selectively affect free recall?
Retroactive
Why does retroactive recall not affect cued recall or recognition?
Because context is partly reinstated during the test
(AKA. in cued-recall and recognition tests, participants were given cues related to the words on the list so memory was obviously better than free recall; does not support retroactive recall claim)
Who proposed the Encoding-Specificity Principle?
Tulving
What does the Encoding-Specificity Principle suggest?
1) Retrieval success depends on “informational overlap” between study (encoding) and testing (retrieval)
2) Memories are linked to the context in which they are created so it is easier to recall info when you are in the same context in which you studied the info
According to the Encoding-Specificity Principle, what are the 2 types of context suggested by Hewitt?
1) Intrinsic
2) Extrinsic
What is an intrinsic context?
- Features that are an integral part of the target stimulus
- When participants remember an item better if you present the item with a target word related to an item
Who conducted a study investigating the effect of study-test congruence on memory for target words?
Barclay et al.
Describe Barclay et al.’s study investigating the effect of study-test congruence on memory for target words
1) There were 2 conditions:
Group 1 = Presented with sentences that have a target word and related context
e.g. “The man tuned the piano” (melodious aspect of piano)
Group 2 = Presented with sentences that have a target word and a slightly unrelated context e.g. “The man lifted the piano” (heaviness aspect of piano)
2) Ps were cued to recall a word that relates to the cue
e.g. Something melodious
e.g. Something heavy
2) Findings = The Ps who studied the sentence in the melodious context recalled more words than those who studied in the heaviness context
What did Barclay et al.’s study investigating the effect of study-test congruence on memory for target words suggest/concluded with?
Recognition cues were better if study and test intrinsic context were similar
What is an extrinsic context?
Other features present at the time of encoding/studying
e.g. time, place, cognitive state
Who conducted the Diver Study to investigate extrinsic context?
Godden and Baddeley
Describe Godden and Baddeley’s Diver Study to investigate extrinsic context
1) There were 2 conditions:
Group 1 = Study list of words on land
Group 2 = Study list of words underwater
2) Ps were tested on free recall and cognition either on land or underwater
3) Findings = Memory performance is best when your studying condition matches your testing condition (e.g. You perform best when you study on land and get tested on land)
What did the findings of Godden and Baddeley’s Diver Study to investigate extrinsic context suggest?
Memory performance is better if your study and test extrinsic contexts are matched but only for free recall
AKA. Memory performance is best when your studying condition matches your testing condition for free recall
(e.g. You perform best when you study on land and get tested on land)
Can mood influence memory?
Yes
Memory is better if moods at study and test match (mood congruency effect)
What is the mood congruency effect?
Memory is better if moods at study and test match
Who conducted an experiment to investigate the mood congruency effect?
Eich and Metcalfe
Who theorised that people actively/unconsciously repress unpleasant memories?
Freud
Who theorised that people remember fewer negative associations than neutral ones (evidence for repression)?
Levinger and Clark
Who theorised that those who suffered childhood abuse/more abuse are more likely to remember the abuse?
Williams
Who opposed Levinger and Clark’s theory, concluding that emotional associations are better remembered by individuals?
Parkin et al.
Who proposed the Think/No-Think paradigm?
Mike Anderson
What does the Think/No-Think paradigm do?
- Train Ps to suppress memories they would like to suppress
- Directing people to forget previously learned associations, which can reduce later cued recall for those associations
What were the findings of Anderson’s Think/No-Think paradigm study?
- Words that you’ve practised retrieving, you’re better at recalling later
- Words that you’ve suppressed, you’re later impaired at recalling those memories
What did the findings of Anderson’s Think/No-Think paradigm study suggest?
We can maybe control the memories that we want to remember and memories we don’t want to remember
Who proposed the Tetris studies to investigate repression and motivated forgetting?
Emily Holmes
What were the findings of the Tetris studies by Emily Holmes?
- Engaging in a visuospatial task immediately after a traumatic event can reduce intrusive memories
- Those who played tetris after watching a car crash video a week before (traumatic event) remembered less of the car crash video than those who did nothing
Why do we forget? List 5 reasons
1) Decay
2) Interference (Pro- or Retro-active)
3) Retrieval failure (Cue-dependent forgetting)
4) Repression and Motivated Forgetting
5) Consolidation failure
What does consolidation suggest about forgetting?
When new memories are initially labile (easily changed) and sensitive to disruption before becoming progressively more stable
AKA. New memories become fixed and less amenable to disruption over time
What theory of forgetting suggests:
When new memories are initially labile (easily changed) and sensitive to disruption before becoming progressively more stable
Consolidation
Memory can be defined by 4 things. WHat are they?
1) Store
2) Process
3) System
4) Forgetting
What are the 3 memory stores?
1) Sensory
2) Short term
3) Long term
What are the 3 memory processes?
1) Short-lasting effects of sensory/perceptual processing
2) Medium duration effects of working memory
(control, articulation and phonological store and visuospatial)
3) Long term effects of processing at different depths
What are the 2 content/systems of memory?
1) Declarative/explicit (Episodic, Semantic)
2) Non-declarative/implicit (Procedural, Priming)
