Language 2 Flashcards
What is the paradox of language?
It is rapidly produced and understood, yet complex
What are the 6 components of language?
1) Phonemes
2) Morphemes
3) Phonology
4) Syntax
5) Semantics
6) Pragmatics
Phonemes are 1/6 of the components of language. Define and provide an example of Phonemes
Definition = The smallest units of sound
Example = “Rice” and “Lice” differ from each other by just one sound “Ruh” and “Luh”
Morphemes are 1/6 of the components of language. Define and provide an example of Morphemes
Definition = The smallest units of meaning in language
Example = “Dog” and “Dogs” differ from each other by just one letter (letter “s”) which indicates singular or plural
Phonology is 1/6 of the components of language. Define and provide an example of Phonology
Definition = Rules governing the sound of words and parts of words (rules that tell us how one should pronounce certain sounds and words)
Syntax is 1/6 of the components of language. Define and provide an example of Syntax
Definition = Rules governing word order and meaning resulting in sentences (rules that tell us where words should be ordered/arranged in order for a sentence to make sense)
Example = “Pass the salt” makes more sense that “The pass salt”
Semantics are 1/6 of the components of language. Define and provide an example of Semantics
Definition = The meaning of words and sentences
Example = “Bank” is where you store your money
Pragmatics are 1/6 of the components of language. Define and provide an example of Pragmatics
Definition = The use of language as a function of the content and social rules (how we use language in an everyday setting depending on who you’re speaking to)
Example = “Hello” -> More formal
“Hi” and “Hey” -> More casual
What component of language is the use of language as a function of the content and social rules?
Pragmatics
What component of language is the meaning of words and sentences?
Semantics
What component of language are the rules governing word order and meaning resulting in sentences?
Syntax
What component of language is the rules governing the sound of words and parts of words?
Phonology
What component of language is the smallest unit of sound?
Phonemes
What is speech segmentation?
When the brain determines where one meaningful unit (e.g., word or morpheme) ends and the next begins in a continuous speech, and it is critical for auditory language processing
What is the purpose of speech segmentation?
- To help us determine when one word ends and the next word begins
- Because when we hear a speech, we hear a continuous pattern of sound so it order to comprehend it, we must know when each word starts and ends
What is co-articulation?
The pronunciation of a phoneme by a speaker depends on the preceding and following phonemes
Simply = It’s a situation when a conceptually isolated speech sound (from the 1st word you say) influences another conceptually isolated speech sound/word (from the next word you say)
e.g. The word “job” is likely to be misperceived if the “job” part was recorded from the previous word you said which was “jog”
“The pronunciation of a phoneme by a speaker depends on the preceding and following phonemes” is known as…
Co-articulation
What are the 3 problems with co-articulation?
1) No one-to-one relationship between acoustic signals and phonemes
2) Phonemesmes have different sounds depending on what sound is produced before or afterwards
3) Variability makes it harder to detect and analyse the acoustic properties of speech
What are the 2 benefits of co-articulation?
1) Allows for speech signals to transfer info in parallel
(Acoustic messages are transmitted more quickly than strings of discrete units)
2) Allows for the prediction of the next sound which makes speech perception faster
(Prediction due to co-articulation occurs within words and not between different words)
What are the 2 well-known theories of speech perception?
1) Motor theory (Liberman et al)
2) Trace (McClelland and Elman)
What theory did Liberman et al. propose about speech perception?
Motor theory
Who proposed the Motor theory on speech perception?
Liberman et al.
What theory did McClelland and Elman propose about speech perception?
TRACE
Who proposed the TRACE theory on speech perception?
McClelland and Elman
What does the Motor theory imply about speech perception?
Listeners perceive spoken words by reproducing the movements of the speaker’s vocal tract (what the speaker is mouthing when they are saying something) rather than identifying sound patterns that the speech generates
“Listeners perceive spoken words by reproducing the movements of the speaker’s vocal tract (what the speaker is mouthing when they are saying something) rather than identifying sound patterns that the speech generates” Which theory proposes this?
The motor theory
(….) is involved in both speech perception and production
Motor system
What are the benefits of the motor system?
It can produce language as well as help us with speech perception (uses only one system to do both of these tasks)
What are the 3 main evidence supporting the motor theory?
1) McGurk effect
2) Categorical perception
3) Motor cortex is functionally involved in speech perception
What theory does the McGurk effect support?
The motor theory
What theory does categorical perception support?
The motor theory
What theory does the “motor cortex is functionally involved in speech perception” support?
The motor theory
What does the McGurk effect suggest?
When the auditory component of one sound pairs with the visual component of another sound, it leads to the perception of a third sound
“When the auditory component of one sound pairs with the visual component of another sound, it leads to the perception of a third sound” What effect is this?
The McGurk effect
What does the McGurk effect suggest about our auditory and visual processing?
- Our auditory and visual info processing is merged
- Because usually what we see (someone mouthing a word/sound) can influence what we believe we are hearing
Who proposed the categorical speech perception theory?
Paizada and Poldrack
What were the findings of Paizada and Poldrack’s categorical speech perception experiment?
1) Speakers did not perceive gradual change and instead suddenly switched from perceiving one sound to perceiving the other
2) There was better discrimination of pairs of sounds when the sounds were across the crucial point
Which theory suggests that speakers do not perceive gradual change and instead suddenly switch from perceiving one sound to perceiving the other?
The categorical speech perception
How does the motor cortex relate to speech perception?
1) Listening to speech and imagining you are speaking activates the speech motor cortex (as shown in fMRI)
2) Disrupting the motor cortex with TMS (magnet) decreases phoneme discrimination
Who thought of the TRACE model?
McClelland and Elman
What did McClelland and Elman propose about speech perception?
TRACE model
What is the TRACE model?
- It is a networking model with processing units at 3 levels
- Connections between levels are facilitatory (e.g. auditory feature helps activate phoneme)
- Connections with the same level are inhibitory (e.g. at the auditory feature level, when you first hear /c/ then /a/ is initially inhibited)
What are the 3 levels of processing units according to the TRACE model?
1) Auditory feature nodes (connected to phoneme nodes)
2) Phoneme nodes (connected to word nodes)
3) Word nodes
What is the purpose of TRACE?
1) The primary function is to take all of the various sources of information found in speech and integrate them to identify single words (connecting different parts of a speech together to make sense of the speech)
e.g.
Word = CAT
Phoneme = C … A … T
Auditory feature = “Cuh” “Ah” “Tuh”
2) All components of speech (auditory features, phonemes, and words) have their own role in creating a speech, and using TRACE to unite them leads to a complete stream of speech, instead of individual components.
What is the step-by-step process of TRACE?
1) You hear the auditory feature
2) The auditory feature activates a phoneme (unit of sound)
3) Phoneme activates words
4) Words then activate additional phonemes that the listener expects to hear next
What is the evidence supporting the TRACE model?
1) Ganong effect/lexical identification shift
2) Phonemic restoration effect
The Ganong effect/lexical identification shift supports which model on speech perception?
The TRACE model
The Phonemic restoration effect supports which model on speech perception?
The TRACE model
What does the Ganong effect/lexical identification shift suggest?
- When we listen to sounds ranging in phonemes (e.g. “dash” and “tash”) the phonemes were assigned to words rather than non-words
- “Tash” is not a real word; so we tend to perceive an ambiguous speech sound as a phoneme that would complete a real word, such as “Dash”, rather than completing a nonsense/fake word
What does the Phonemic restoration effect suggest?
- We tend to hallucinate a phoneme replaced by a non-speech sound (e.g., a tone) in a word
- Listeners believe they hear the missing sound or phoneme and replace the phoneme based on real-world context
e.g. It was found that the eel was on the shoe (Ps heard heel instead of eel)
It was found that the eel was on the orange
(Ps heard peel instead of eel)
What is the average speech rate?
150 words per minute / 2-3 words per second
How can we make speech production easier? List 2 ways
1) Preformulation
2) Underspecification
What does Preformulation help with?
Making speech production easier
What does Underspecification help with?
Making speech production easier
What is Preformulation?
Producing phrases that have been used before
What is Underspecification?
Using simplified expressions (e.g. “something” instead of producing the proper name)
What term is used to describe when we produce phrases that have been used before?
Preformulation
What term is used to describe when we use simplified expressions (e.g. “something” instead of producing the proper name)
Underspecification
List the 3 parts of a speech production process
1) Conceptualisation = Think of an idea to communicate
2) Formulation = Find a way to express the idea with specific language tools
3) Articulation = Physically moving muscles to produce speech
What part of the speech production process involves thinking of an idea to communicate?
Conceptualisation
What part of the speech production process involves finding a way to express the idea with specific language tools?
Formulation
What part of the speech production process involves physically moving muscles to produce speech?
Articulation
What is Conceptualisation?
Thinking of an idea to communicate
What is Formation?
Finding a way to express the idea with specific language tools
What Articulation?
Physically moving muscles to produce speech
What are the 2 main theories of speech production?
1) WEAVER ++ (Levelt et al.)
2) Spreading activation (Dell)
Who proposed the WEAVER ++ theory of speech production?
Levelt et al.
Who proposed the Spreading activation theory of speech production?
Dell
What theory did Levelt et al propose to explain speech production?
WEAVER ++
What theory did Dell propose to explain speech production?
Spreading activation
What do the WEAVER ++ and Spreading Activation theories suggest about speech production?
There are 2 stages involved in turning a thought into a speech sound (lexicalization)
What does the WEAVER ++ suggest about the speech production process?
Speech production is a feed-forward process (serial process)
What does the Spreading activation theory suggest about the speech production process?
Speech production is an interactive process (process interacts forwards and backwards)
What are the 6 steps to speech production according to WEAVER++?
1) Think of an idea to convey
2) Identify appropriate lexical items (lemma level)
3) Retrieve the word’s morphemic code (units of meaning)
4) Retrieve the word’s phonological code (units of sound)
5) Syllabify words and access articulatory gestures
6) Move muscles and produce speech waves
What is Lemma in the WEAVER++ theory?
An intermediate stage between activating an idea and the speech sound (but link from meaning to sound is not a one stage process)
What is lexicalisation in speech production?
Link from meaning to sound (turn thought/idea into speech sounds
What does the Spreading Activation suggest?
- When a word is activated, activation spreads to other related nodes
e.g. activation of the node for “tree” can spread the activation node for “plant”
- Nodes corresponding to words or concepts vary in activation
What term is used when a word is activated and the activation spreads to other related nodes?
Spreading Activation
What are the 3 levels of speech activation, according to the spreading activation theory?
1) Semantics
3) Words
3) Phonemes
What does an “interactive info flow” mean, according to the spreading activation theory?
Info can flow from the meaning of the word to the sound of it and vice versa
What is Lemma in the Spreading Activation theory?
An intermediate stage between activating an idea and the speech sound
What are the 6 steps to speech production according to Spreading Activation?
1) Think of an idea to convey (Conceptual preparation)
2) Identify appropriate lexical items (Lexical selection)
3) Encode the word’s morphemic code (units of meaning)
4) Encode/Syllabify the word’s phonological code (units of sound)
5) Translate an abstract and/or unfamiliar word into a similar sounding, more familiar, concrete, and high imagery word
6) Move muscles and produce speech waves (Articulation)
What are the 3 supporting evidence for MODELS of speech production?
1) Tip-of-the-tongue state (TOTs)
2) Picture-word interference
3) Speech errors
What does Tip-of-the-tongue state (TOTs) support?
MODELS of speech production
What does Picture-word interference support?
MODELS of speech production
What do Speech errors support?
MODELS of speech production
Define Tip-of-the-tongue state (TOTs)
When you have an idea/concept in mind but cannot find the appropriate words to express them in speech
What term is used to describe when you have an idea/concept in mind but cannot find the appropriate words to express them in speech?
Tip-of-the-tongue state (TOTs)
While in Tip-of-the-tongue state (TOTs), people can still retrieve… List 3 things
1) The first phoneme of the target word
2) The number of syllables of the target word
3) The gender of the target word
What does Tip-of-the-tongue state (TOTs) mostly occur with?
With low-frequency words (Harley and Brown)
What does Tip-of-the-tongue state (TOTs) suggest about speech production models?
That there are different stages associated with lexicalisation (converting thought into speech sounds)
Define Picture-Word Interference
Naming pictures whilst ignoring distractor words presented
According to Picture-Word Interference, what relatedness slows down picture naming?
Semantic relatedness (when picture and distractor words are similar in categories e.g. lemon and apple are both fruits)
According to Picture-Word Interference, what relatedness speeds up picture naming?
Phonological relatedness (when picture and distractor words are similar in sounds e.g. house and mouse sound similar)
A picture of a “water” is placed next to the distractor word “juice”. What relatedness is this?
Semantic relatedness = Water and juice are similar in categories/meaning (liquids)
A picture of a “dog” is placed next to the distractor word “jog”. What relatedness is this?
Phonological relatedness = Dog and Jog are similar in sounds (og)
Name 3 reasons why we study speech errors
1) Gain insights into how the complex cognitive system involved in speech production works and when it breaks
2) Understand how info flows between different mental processes during speech production
3) Understand how much planning speakers do when they speak
What are the 3 types of speech errors?
1) Semantic substitution
2) Word-exchange
3) Sound exchange (spoonerisms)
Semantic substitution is a type of…?
Speech error
Word-exchange is a type of …?
Speech error
Sound exchange (spoonerisms) is a type of …?
Speech error
What is Semantic substitution in speech error?
When people mistakenly use a word that has a similar meaning to the word they were initially going to use
e.g. “Where is my tennis bat?” is an error for “Where is my tennis racket?”
What error involves people mistakenly using a word that has a similar meaning to the word they were initially going to use?
Semantic-substituition
What is word exchange in speech error?
When people mistakenly mix up the order of a word in a sentence which may result in the complete opposite meaning than initially intended
e.g. “My chair looks empty without my room” is an error for “My room looks empty without my chair”
What speech error involves people mistakenly mixing up the order of a word in a sentence which may result in the complete opposite meaning than initially intended?
Word-exchange
What is sound exchange in speech error?
When people mix up the order of two individual morphemes (morphemes end up being reversed) and the sound from a later syllable replaces one from an earlier syllable.
e.g. “Go and shake a tower” is an error for “go and take a shower”
What speech error involves people mixing up the order of two individual morphemes (morphemes end up being reversed) and the sound from a later syllable replaces one from an earlier syllable?
Sound Exchange (spoonerisms)
Are speech errors random?
No
What evidence support that speech errors are not random?
1) Lexical bias effect
2) Mixed-error effect
What does the Lexical bias effect support about speech error?
That speech error is not random
What does the Mixed-error effect support about speech error?
That speech error is not random
What does the Lexical bias effect suggest about speech errors?
That speech errors tend to feature real words vs non-word (people are more likely to produce speech errors when the incorrect words are actual words and not nonsense)
e.g. “fig beet” instead of “big feet” is more common than “hig borse” and “big horse”
“fig” and “beet” are real words compared to “hig” and “borse so even though they are both speech errors, people often mix up real words rather than nonsense words
What does the Mixed-error effect suggest about speech errors?
That incorrect words are semantically and phonetically related to the correct word
e.g. more likely to say “let’s start” vs “let’s begin” when the target word is “let’s stop” because “start” and “stop” are similar in meaning and sound compared to “begin” and “stop”
What theories support the WEAVER ++ speech production model?
- Picture-word interference
- Speech errors (to a certain extent but not for mixed-error and lexical bias error)
What theories support the Spreading Activation speech production model?
- Tip of the Tongue (TOTs)
- Picture-word interference
- Speech errors
What is audience design?
Making communication effective by considering listener’s specific needs
What term is used to describe making communication effective by considering the listener’s specific needs?
Audience design
What is common ground?
Helps us facilitate communication as we use information that:
1) Both conversational partners can see in front of them
2) Had previously been mentioned within the discourse
3) Is shared cultural/community knowledge
What is the term used to describe:
What helps us facilitate communication as we use information that:
1) Both conversational partners can see in front of them
2) Had previously been mentioned within the discourse
3) Is shared cultural/community knowledge
Common ground
What is syntactic priming?
Using the structure that we’ve heard most recently rather than alternative
What is the term used to describe when we use the structure that we’ve heard most recently rather than the alternative?
Syntactic priming
Using the sentence
1) The boy is being scratched by the lion
instead of
2) The lion is scratching the boy
is an example of…?
Syntactic priming
List 3 reasons why we use syntactic priming.
1) Repeating previously used structures reduces demands on speech production
2) We can be sure that the language we use is understandable to our conversational partners
3) Helps us “align” with our conversational partners (be in the same wavelength of each other/you vibe with them more)
What are the 2 strategies that we use to make communication more effective?
1) Syntactic priming
2) Common ground
