Memory Flashcards
Define Memory
Memory
Ability to retain knowledge and retrieve information
Memory
Define Short Term Memory
Memory
Information in held for a short period of time for immediate use
Memory
Define Long Term Memory
Memory
Information is stored so that we can retrieve it at a later point
Memory
Define Capacity
Memory
The amount of information that can be held in a memory store at any one time
Memory
Define Duration
Memory
The length of time that memories can be held for
Memory
Define Encoding
Memory
The way information is represented in a memory store e.g. acoustic/echoic
Memory
What is the first step to creating a memory?
Memory
Taking in visual information (light waves) and auditory information (sound waves)
Memory
What is an example of STM?
Short Term Memory
Trying to remember a phone number for a few seconds
Short Term Memory
What is the capacity for STM?
Short Term Memory
Limited to 7+/-2 items e.g 9.3 digits and 7.3 letters
Short Term Memory
What is the duration for STM?
Short Term Memory
Limited to 18 seconds without rehearsal (30 with)
Short Term Memory
What is encoding in STM?
Short Term Memory
Acoustic (discovered by Baddely 1966)
Short Term Memory
What is an example of LTM?
Long Term Memory
Childhood memories
Long Term Memory
What is capacity of LTM?
Long Term Memory
Potentially unlimited
Long Term Memory
What is the duration of LTM?
Long Term Memory
Potentially unlimited
Long Term Memory
What is encoding of LTM?
Long Term Memory
Semantic (also Baddely 1966)
Long Term Memory
What is the aim of Baddely 1966?
KEY STUDY - ENCODING
To compare how information is encoded in short and long term memory
KEY STUDY - ENCODING
What was the procedure in Baddeley’s study?
Presented groups of participants with sets of words to recall
What were the groups in Baddeley’s study?
Group 1 - Acoustically similar words (e.g. cat, cab, can)
Group 2 - Acoustically dissimilar words (e.g. pit, few, cow)
Group 3 - Semantically similar words (e.g. large, huge, big)
Group 4 - Semantically dissimilar words (e.g. good, huge, hot)
What are the two types of Cue-Dependent Forgetting?
Forgetting : Retrieval Failure
- Cues are linked meaningful to the info to be remembered e.g. mnemonic techniques
- Cues are not linked meaningful to the info to be remembered
Forgetting : Retrieval Failure
What do external cues encode?
Forgetting : Retrieval Failure
Context
Forgetting : Retrieval Failure
What do internal cues encode?
Forgetting : Retrieval Failure
State
Forgetting : Retrieval Failure
Tulving 1983 reviewed research into retrieval failure which identifies a pattern. What is this called?
Forgetting : Retrieval Failure
The Encoding Sufficiency Principle (ESP)
Forgetting : Retrieval Failure
What is ESP?
Forgetting : Retrieval Failure
ESP = if a cue is to help us recall information, it-
has to be present at encoding (when we learn the material) and at retrieval (when we recall information)
Forgetting : Retrieval Failure
Godden and Baddeley, 1975
18 divers from a diving club were asked to learn lists of 36 unrelated words of two or three syllables.
What were the 4 conditions of the Godden and Badeley study?
A. Underwater recall Dry
B. Underwater recall Wet
C. Dry recall Wet
D. Dry recall Dry
Results from Godden and Baddeley’s Study
Learn on beach + recalled on beach - 13.5✅
Learn on beach + recalled underwater - 8.6❌
Learn underwater + recalled on beach - 8.5❌
Learn Underwater + recalled underwater - 11.4✅
What was Godden and Baddeley’s conclusion?
Results shown context acted as a cue to recall as the participants recalled more words when they learnt + recalled the words in the same environment than when they learnt + recalled the words in different environments
Evaluate Godden and Baddeley’s Study
+ Controlled experiment - Replicable and reliability can be tested
- Mundane Realism - task was artificial
- Groups learnt + recalled in different environments were disrupted - influence?
What was the aim of Carter + Carter (1998)?
Investigate the effect of internal state on recall
Carter + Cassaday Procedure
100 undergraduate students given an antihistamine on first day, other half given placebo.
15 mins after, subjects were given 2 mins to study 20 words
Next day - Participants were given the antihistamine/ placebo.
Tested again on their recall of the 20 words
Carter + Cassaday Findings
There was a mismatch between internal state when learning and recalling, performance was significantly worse.
Carter + Cassaday Conclusion
When cues are absent there is more forgetting
Goodwin Et al (1969) procedure
48 male medical students participated in day 1 in a training session and on day 2 in a testing.
What were the random groups assigned in Goodwin et al (1969)
- (SS) Sober both days
- (AA) Intoxicated both days
- (AS) Intoxicated on day 1 and Sober on day 2
- (SA) Sober on day 1 and Intoxicated on day 2
Goodwin et al (1969) - What 4 tests did the participants have to perform?
- Avoidance task
- Verbal rote-learning task
- Word-association test
- Picture recognition task
Goodwin et al (1969) Findings
More errors were made on day 2 in the As and Sa conditions, however not the case for face recognition test. SS participants performed best in all tests.
Goodwin et al (1969) Conclusion
Supports state-dependent memory theory as performance was best in the participants who were sober or intoxicated on both days.
Evaluation Basics of Goodwin et al (1969)
- Demand characteristics
- Ecological validity
- Control of variables
- Reliability
- Ethics
Evaluate Goodwin et al (1969)
+ High validity - loads of supporting evidence
+ Real-life applications - used as a strategy to improve recall in eye-witness memory when witnesses are asked to describe context of incident they have witnessed took place during cognitive interviews
- Cannot test ESP
Define Eye Witness Testimony
Account witnesses tell the police about an incident they have seen so it is more accurate to refer to etiquettes memory rather than eyewitness testimony when we study how accurate their recall is.
3 stages eyewitness memories go through…
- Witness ENCODES LTM details of event + person involved
- Witness RETAINS info for a period of time
- Witnesses RETRIEVES memory from storage to give their testimony
Define misleading information
Incorrect info given to the eye witness (usually after event)
2 major forms of misleading information
- Leading questions
- Post-event discussion
Define leading questions
A question phrased in such a way as to suggest a certain answer e.g. “was the knife in the accused’s lefts hand?
Why do leading questions affect EWT?
Response Bias and Substitution Bias
Define Response Bias
Wording of a question has no enduring effect on an eyewieness memory of an event, but influences the kind of answer given
Define Substitution Bias
Wording of a question does affect eyewitness memory: it interferes with its original memory, distorting accuracy
KEY STUDY - Loftus and Palmer (1974)
45 participants shown footage of a car accident. Changed language in questions to make them leading. Asked participants to fire speed that the cars were travelling in different conditions.
