Memory

Question 1

What is the Multi store model of memory

Answer 1

It attempts to explain how information flows from one memory store to another.

Question 2

What are the three permanent stores in the multi store of memory

Answer 2

Sensory register
Short term memory
Long term memory

Question 3

How is memory coded in short term and long term memory

Answer 3

Short term - acoustically

Long term - semantically

Question 4

What is the capacity of short and long term memory

Answer 4

Short term - 7(+/-2)

Long term - infinite

Question 5

What is the duration in short and long term memory

Answer 5

Short term - 18-30s

Long term - lifetime

Question 6

How is short term memory converted into long term memory

Answer 6

Through elaborative rehearsal, which is more efficient that maintenance rehearsal

Question 7

How do we retrieve info in LTM and how can this fail

Answer 7

It is retrieved by our STM and then recalled, however this may fail due to retrieval failure, so we may need retrieval cues

Question 8

Positive evaluation of multi store model of memory (3)

Answer 8

1. Scoville (1957) tried treating patient referred to as HM’s epilepsy by removing brain area, including hippocampus. This results in patient not being able to code new LTM, but his STM was unaffected, therefore supports idea that STM and LTM are distinct.
2. Shallice and Warrington (1970) reported case of KF who had reduced STM capacity of only 1/2 digits yet his LTM was normal. Supports idea of separate STM and LTM stores.
3. Murdock (1962) gave participants a long list of words to be recalled in any order, and was describes as free recall experiment. Words at beginning and end of list were better recalled; known as the serial position effect. This happen as words at beginning have been constantly rehearsed and transferred to LTM (primary effect) and end of list is still in STM (recency effect). Supports idea of separate STM and LTM.

Question 9

Negative evaluation of multi store model of memory (3-)

Answer 9

1. But, in Shallice and Warrington study, KF had poor STM for verbal tasks but not visual tasks which suggests there is more than one type of STM, which contradicts the Multi-Store Model (MSM) of memory. Also, according to the MSM, LTM is retrieved by STM so if STM is damaged it should be difficult to retrieve LTM. However, KF was able to access LTM without any difficulty.
2. The MSM is oversimplified as it assumed only one type of STM and LTM. Research indicates there are several types, such as one for verbal info (phonological loop) and non-verbal (visuo-spatial sketch pad), for STM, and LTM we have many such as episodic, procedural and semantic memory.
3. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) claimed that MSM couldn’t explain ability to multi-task; but if there’s only one type of STM then we wouldn’t be able to multi-task, but people multi-task all the time, therefore, the model is contradicted

Question 10

What is the working memory model

Answer 10

The WMM is a model used to describe STM. Badely and hitch saw STM as an active store for holding several pieces of info while being worked on, instead of bein a simple temporary store.

Question 11

Central executive

Answer 11

This drives the whole working memory and allocates data to other compartments, known as slave systems. It also deals with things like decision making and problem solving.

Question 12

How do automated tasks affect the central executive

Answer 12

If task are automated, they have less attentional demands on the CE, so it leaves us free to do other tasks

Question 13

What is the phological loop

Answer 13

It is a component of working memory that handles spoken and written material

Question 14

What are the two sub stores of the phonological loop

Answer 14

1. Phonological store - this is linked to speech perception and holds info in speech-based form for 1-2 seconds
2. Articulatory loop - linked to speech production and is used to rehearse and storage verbal info from the phonological store, thus allowing maintenance rehearsal.

Question 15

What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 15

It stores and process info in a visual or spatial form, and it is used for navigation. It is referred to as our ‘inner eye’

Question 16

Two sub-components of Visio-Spatial sketchpad

Answer 16

1. Visual cache - stores visual material about form and colour
2. Inner scribe - handles spatial relationships

Question 17

What is the episodic buffer

Answer 17

The episodic bufferis a limited capacity store, integrating information from the central executive, the phonological loopand the visuo-spatial sketchpad, as well as from LTM

Question 18

Why was the episodic buffer added after by Baddeley to his model

Answer 18

He realised that his model needed a general storage compare to to operate normally as the slave systems could only deal with processing an temporary storage, while the central executive had no storage capacity at all

Question 19

Positive evaluation of working memory model (4)

Answer 19

1. Shallice and Warrington (1970) reported case study of KF who, due to motorbike accident, had poor Short-Term Memory (STM) for words that were presented verbally but not for words that were presented visually. This suggests that there is more than one type of STM, as the Working Memory Model suggests. This shows that we have a type of STM for verbal tasks (phonological loop) and another for visual (visual-sketch-pad)
2. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) gave participants a dual task. They were asked to complete a reasoning task, utilising the central executive, at the same time as a reading aloud task, which uses the phonological loop. Participants could do both tasks simultaneously very well, supporting the idea of separate components in STM
3. Baddeley et al. (1975) gave participants brief visual presentations of lists of words. They were short words or long words. Participants were asked to recall the list immediately in the correct order. It was found that participants could recall more short words than long ones. Baddeley (1975) called this the word ‘length effect’ and concluded that it supports the idea that the phonological loop can hold as many items as can be said in 1.5 - 2 seconds rather than being limited by 7 (+/-2) items as the multi-store model says.
4. The WMM has also improved understanding of how people learn to read and thus assist those who have dyslexia

Question 20

Negative evaluation of working memory model

Answer 20

1. Several pyschologist have critiqued the model as they think the idea of a central executive is vague. Damasks (1985) presented case of EVR who had a cerebral tumour removed, and he still had good reasoning skills, suggesting his central executive was fine, but the fact he couldnt make decisions would imply CE damage, therefore, suggesting the CE is much more complex

Question 21

What is forgetting

Answer 21

Term used to refer to someone’s loss of ability to recall info that had been previously learnt

Question 22

Interference theory

Answer 22

This claims that forgetting occurs when 2 lots of info are confused in memory. It’s more likely to occur when they are similar pieces of info, but its less likely to occur when there is a gap of instances of learning

Question 22

Retroactive interference

Answer 22

When new learning affect the recall of old info

Question 23

Proactive interference

Answer 23

when old learning affect the recall of new info

Question 24

Positive evaluation of interference theory (3)

Answer 24

1. Underwood (1957) investigated proactive interference. Found that participants who listened to ten lists of words could only recall, 20% of words the next day. Those who learned one list were able to recall over 70% the next day
2. McGeoch and McDonald (1931) displayed retroactive interference. Gave participants list of words they had to learn 100% accurately. They then learned a new list. The list was either synonyms or antonyms, and those asked to recall synonyms had worse recall, as learning words of the same meaning causes interference
3. Theory also has practical applications. Students should be made aware of this theory in order not to revise similar subjects at the same time, which may cause more interference

Question 25

Negative evaluation of interference theory

Answer 25

1. When interference happens, loss of info may only be temporary. Thus, interfere isn’t a true explanation for forgetting as the info isn’t actually over-written and is still in our LTM.
2. Godden and Badely (1975) asked divers to learn word lists on dry land or underwater. Results showed words learnt in same context were better recalled as there were retrieval cues in environment to help. Thus, psychologists argue that retrieval failure is a much better explanation for forgetting in everyday life than interference. This theory states forgetting occurs due to insufficient retrieval cues.

Question 26

How are some retrieval cues not related to the material

Answer 26

• the cue may be related to the physical environment that you learnt the info so you remember it if you are placed in that specific environment.
• some are related to you physical state so if your physical state was the same as when you learnt the info.

Question 27

Positive evaluation of the retrieval failure theory (4)

Answer 27

1. Abernethy (1940) shows importance of context-dependent situations. They tested participants recall using a mix of familiar and unfamiliar teaching rooms and instructors. Those who performed In familiar conditions were said have performed the best, due to more retrieval cues
2. Godden and Baddely (1975) also demonstrated the importance of context-dependent cues. Asked divers to learn and recall words on dry and wet conditions, and showed that they recalled in the same context due to more retrieval cues
3. Darley et al (1973) showed importance of state-dependent cues. Found participants who hid money in a warehouse under influence of cannabis were more likely to recall hiding place when in a similar drugged state
4. Retrieval failure has practical applications. Students should revise/learn in the room where they will take their exams if possible

Question 28

What is episodic memory and each element

Answer 28

This is stored in your hippocampus and is memory for events, eg. Ur first day at school.

The episodic memory has three elements:
1.specific detail of the events
2. Context of the event
3. Feelings and emotions at time of event

Question 29

What is semantic memory

Answer 29

It is stored in the temporal lobe and is your memory for facts and knowledge. May also relate to functions of an object, appropriate behaviour in certain sceneries, and abstract concepts like maths and English

Question 30

What is procedural memory and how is it acquired

Answer 30

These memories are stored in the cerebellum and are concerned with motor skills and actions, eg. Tying out shoelaces. These are gained through practice and repetition.

Question 31

Positive evaluation of long term memory (3)

Answer 31

1. There is evidence to show the distinction between episodic, semantic and procedural memory. Has come from research with amnesia patients. Usually, these patients cannot store new episodic or semantic memories but procedural memory seems unaffected
2. Scientific evidence from brain scans supports view of dif types of LTM. Eg. When asked to recall dif types of info, dif areas of the brain are show to activate on an fMRI scan. Episodic memories are associated with hippocampus, semantic with temporal lobe and procedural with cerebellum
3. Case studies of patients with brain damage support idea of dif types of LTM. Eg. Clive Wearing is a man who suffers from a disease that damages his hippocampus, and thus has no episodic memory and cannot form new semantic memories. But, procedural memory seems to be in act.

Question 32

Negative evaluation of long term memory

Answer 32

1. Research into dif types of LTM have been usually conducted on individual patients , like Clive wearying and HM. These are highly detailed and give lots of info, but are isolated cases. Thus we cannot assume everyone has the same LTM storage methods, thus they cannot be generalised

Question 33

Negative evaluation of the retrieval failure theory

Answer 33

1. Baddely (1997) argues influences of retrieval cues isn’t that strong. In real life, we often recall something in a dif context to what we learn it in. Eg. Students don’t really take their GCSE’s in the same room that they learned the content and need for that exam.

Question 34

What is eyewitness testimony

Answer 34

Evidence supplied to court by people who’ve seen a crime based on their memory of the incident. They can often have identification of perpetrator or details of the crime.

Question 35

What are leading questions

Answer 35

Questions phrased in a way to encourage someone to give a certain response.

Question 36

Differences between response and substitution bias.

Answer 36

Response bias - states leading questions don’t affect memory and only affect answer we choose to give

Substitution bias - states leading questions can distort memories as they may contain misleading info

Question 37

Loftus and palmer study + Positive evaluation of leading questions

Answer 37

Loftus and palmer (1974) showed 45 students a car crash film and asked to estimate speed of which the cars were going at. But different verbs were used depending on the conditions. Eg. Verbs like hit, bumped, smashed or collided were separately used. Was found that participants in ‘collided’ condition estimated speeds of 31mph but those with ‘smashed’ estimated 41mph. This therefore shows leading questions have a significant impact on peoples recall and can alter memory of an event

1. ositive is that this study was a lab experiment meaning a high level of control was exerted. Reduces chances of extraneous variables and increases validity. Plus, its easier for psychologists to replicate to see if the same results are found, thus making the study reliable

Question 38

Negative evaluation of leading questions

Answer 38

1. Study has questionable ecological validity. People had watched a video of a car crash, who people who may see a crash in real life may have a stronger emotional connection, and may not be as susceptible to leading questions
2. Study also lacks population validity, as the study was from 45 American students. Students are less experience drivers and may have worse speed judging abilities. Thus, we can’t generalise results to other populations. Eg. Older/experienced drivers may be more accurate in speed judgment and thus less prone to leading questions

Question 39

Gabbert et al (2003) post-event discussion study

Answer 39

Gabbert et al (2003) paired participants and watched different video of same event so they got dif/unique details of each video. In one condition, pairs were encouraged to discuss event with each other before individually recalling event. Other condition they didn’t discuss what they had seen.

Found that 71% of witnesses who discussed event went on to mistakenly recall details they hadn’t seen, but had learned from partner, thus demonstrating effects of memory contamination

Question 40

Evaluation of post-event discussion (1+ 1-)

Answer 40

1. Study has population validity. Two dif populations, students and adults were compared with no big differences between groups. Allows us to conclude that post-event discussion affects both old and younger people in similar ways
2. Gabbert et al. study lacks ecological validity. Participants knew they were taking part in an experiment and thus may have paid more attention to details of the video clips. Thus, results don’t reflect real life where witnesses may be exposed to less info.

Question 41

What is weapon focus affect

Answer 41

When witnesses who experience a crime pay more attention to detail of the weapon than the criminal, as a weapon can raise someone’s anxiety levels.

Question 42

Loftus (1979) procedure and findings for anxiety

Answer 42

He wanted to see if anxiety affected ability to recognise the perpetrator of a crime.

• In the experimental condition arranged people to overhear a heated argument. They also had sounds of furniture being overturned/glass broken. A man then emerged carrying a letter in blood.
• In the control condition they overheard a Convo between two people about lab equipment failure before a man covered in grease emerged carrying a pen. How for an arse identify who they had seen from 50 photos

Findings - only 33% in the bloody letter condition recognise the photo whereas 49% recognise the man carrying the pen. Loftus (1979) argued this occurred as people in the former condition focused on the bloody letter because the letter opener was a weapon that could pose a threat to them

Question 43

evaluation of anxiety (1+ 4-)

Answer 43

1. Loftus and Burns study (1982) supports this with other research studies. They allocated participants into two dif conditions. One group watched. A violent short film of a boy shot in the head. The others watched a non-violent film of a crime. Found that there was less accurate recall when they saw the short film with a gun than those who watched non-violent film
2. Lotus and burns study lacks ecological validity. Althought participants waited outside in reception area of the lab, they may have anticipated something was bound to happen, which may affect accuracy of judgements and thus affect validity
3. Study violates various ethical guidelines. Participants were deceived about nature of experiment and weren’t protected from psychological harm. They may have had extreme distress to someone who had just supposedly killed someone walking out right In front of them
4. Yullie and Cutshall (1986) investigated anxiety in real life shooting, where someone was killed and another seriously wounded. 21 witnesses were interviews, with 13 agreeing to take a follow up 5 months later. Found that little change had occurred after 5 months in their testimony, plus, witnesses avoided leading questions and those who had been most distressed gave the most accurate accounts. Thus, in real life leasing questions and anxiety don’t affect accuracy the way they do in a lab
5. Individual differences in how anxiety affect memory. People may even have better recall when more anxious. Christianson and Hubinette (1983) conducted research using 110 real life eyewitnesses who had witnessed one of 22 bank robberies. Some were just onlookers and some were direct victims. Found victims were more accurate than onlookers in description of bank robbers

Question 44

Positive evaluation of cognitive interview

Answer 44

1. Geiselman et al (1985) showed a video of simulated crime and tested recall through cognitive interview, standard interview, and hypnosis. CI led to most info being recalled
2. Fisher et al (1990) trained real police officers in Miami to use enhanced cognitive interview with eyewitnesses. Found on average that 46% increase in amount of info they gave, and 90% of the info was accurate when verified.

Question 45

Negative evaluation of cognitive interview

Answer 45

1. Koehnken et al (1999) found witnesses actually recalled more incorrect info when utilising the CI, compared to standard interview. This is maybe as more detailed recall can lead to more chances of making mistakes
2. The CI is also very time consuming to implement and police often don’t have time, training or rescuers to do it
3. Melon et al (1993) reported police believed ‘recall from changed perspective’ stage in the CI mislead eyewitnesses into speculating about event they had seen, thus police became reluctant to use it

Question 46

Stages of cognitive interview

Answer 46

1. Context reinstatement - witness mentally recreates situation, including details like environment, weather, emotional state etc. may act as retrieval cues
2. Report everything - encourages recall of all details of event, even unimportant ones
3. Recall from changed perspective - mentally recreate situation from different POV’s. Promotes holistic view of event and may increase recall and reduce influence of schemas -> mental structures of preconceived ideas
4. Recall in reverse order - witness recall scene on a dif chronological order, which may verify their account and reduce influence of schemas influencing recall

Question 47

How does post event discussion effect memory

Answer 47

The memory of an event can be contaminated through discussing events with others due to misinformation (memory contamination). Also, a desire for social approval can lead co-witnesses to reach a consensus view of what happened (memory conformity)

Question 48

What is anxiety and what can high levels cause?

Answer 48

Anxiety is a state of apprehension, uncertainty, and fear resulting from a threatening situation. When anxiety is high it can often impair both physical and psychological functioning

Question 49

How does anxiety affect recall

Answer 49

Psychologists have suggested that the anxiety that occurs when witnessing a crime can prevent accurate and detailed recall of that crime.

(Presence of weapon can also affect this)

Question 50

What are the different memory stores and function

Answer 50

Sensory register - contains unprocessed impressions of info from senses. Has iconic store for visual info and echoic store for auditory info

STM - temp store for info received from sensory register

LTM - permanent store holding limitless amounts of info for long period of time

Question 51

Research into duration in STM

Answer 51

Peterson and Peterson (1959) used nonsense trigrams to test STM duration. To prevent ppl keeping info in STM using maintenance rehearsal, they counted backwards from 100 in threes.

90% accurate recall after 3 seconds, and 20% accurate after 9 seconds, but 2% after 18 seconds. Concluded that the info lasts for around 18-30s in STM without rehesearal before it decays

Question 52

Evaluation of research in Duration STM (1+ 1-)

Answer 52

1. Study uses fixes times for ppl to count backwards from. Also eliminated noise/facotd they may affect memory. Research thus said to have high control and using standardised procedures to make sure all participants had same experience
2. Findings of study may have been caused by interference rather than STM having short duration. Possible that earlier learnt Trigrams confused later ones

Question 53

Research into Duration in LTM

Answer 53

Bahrick (1979) tested 400 ppl (17-74) on classmates memory. Photo recognition tests showed 50 photos and had to decide if they were classmates or not. In a free recal test ppl listed names they could remember from graduating class.

Found 90% accuracy of face identification within 15 years of leaving school. 60% after 15 years and 30% after 48 years.

He concluded that duration of LTM is potentially lifetime but sometimes need retrieval cues, due to retrieval failure, to access info

Question 54

Evaluation of research in Duration LTM (1+ 1-)

Answer 54

1. Higher ecological validity than Peterson and Peterson. Because material used was more meaningful and relevant to everyday life
2. Problamtic for controlling extraneous variables, such as people staying in touch after school/how many ppl have looked in their yearbook since leaving school

Question 55

Baddeley (1966) research on coding in LTM and STM

Answer 55

STM:
- 4 lists of words to recall.
List a = simailir sounding words and list b = dissimilar sounding
List c = similar meaning and list d = dissimilar meanings
He argues that STM is coded acoustically as participant performed worse with test A than B but no dif for C&D.

He theorised that as STM organises info according to sound, Similair sounds are muddled

LTM:
Repeated experiment but tested recall after 20 mins. Led to worse recall of List c but not d. No dif in A&B.

So he concluded LTM coded semantically as the LTM organises info in meaning so words that are simailir in meaning are muddled

Question 56

Evaluation of Badley study into coding (1+ 1-)

Answer 56

1. Lab experiment, so ready to replicate as variables are controlled, meaning reliability can be assessed
2. Findings have low ecological validity as they don’t reflect real life memory. The Material (unconnected words) to be recalled was artificial as was the lab setting.

Question 57

Jacobs (1887) study on capacity (only on stm)

Answer 57

He used a digit span test to determine the capacity of STM. Participants read sequence of letters or digits and asked to repeat same sequence back immediately. An additional letter/digit was added on each next trial to measure STM capacity. On average we can hold 9.3 digits and 7.3 letters.

Miller (1956) reviewed psychological research and concluded span of STM is 7+-2. Trying to recall more info than we have the capacity for displaces old info. Also people can recall five words easily as five letters and so chunking can help us remember more.

Question 58

Evaluation of capacity research (1+ 4-)

Answer 58

1. Jacobs (1887) it was a first acknowledge STM capacity gradually improves with age
2. Inconsistent findings. Letters as lower than the span for digits.
3. Early research often lacked control introducing confounding variables into the study reducing validity.
4. Uses a repeated measure design so may have issues with order effects.
5. Result of the estimation capacity. Capacity is only four chunks of information 7+/-2.