Approaches Flashcards

1
Q

L1: who is Wilhelm Wundt and what did he do

A

Father pf pysch

Moved pysch away from philosophical roots to controlled research

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2
Q

L1: what’s introspection

A

Scientific method developed by Wundt to study mental process like perception and structure of sensations

Systematic analysis of own conscious experience of stimuli.

Experience is analysed in terms of components parts eg. Sensations, emotions etc

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3
Q

L1: how did Wundt stabilise general theories about mental processes

A
  • use of controlled environments
  • work paved way for controlled research/stuy of mental processes
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4
Q

L1: Evaluation of Emergence of Psychology as a Science (3+ 1-)

A
  1. First to open lab designed for scientific study of physc enquiry in controlled conditions. Facilitated accurate and repeatable measurements
  2. He was 1st to focus on understandable psychological processes of perception, rather than physiological/biological ones
  3. Recognised later higher mental processes difficult to study using his procedures. Encouraged others to look for more appropriate methods. Paved wave for things like brain scanning.
  4. Modern psychologist argue, early behaviourists (Pavlov) had greater contribution to psychology development. They produced reliable findings, Wundt didnt, with principles that were generalisable -> was In keeping with scientific approach.
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5
Q

L1: what did Wundt say about objectively measuring mental processes such as perception

A
  • with enough training, these processes could be objectively reported by individual. E.g. ask people to focus on every day objects and encourage to look inwards and reflect on sensations of feelings and images that came to mind.
  • Info gained insight to mental process, involved in perception.
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6
Q

L1: evaluation of introspection (2+ 1-)

A
  1. Focus on mental processes through introspection, seeing as forerunner of cognitive approach.
  2. Introspection sometimes use the modern scientific research. Also used in therapy and studying emotional states. Demonstrates value as one way mental processes can be investigated.
  3. Studies using it may not be valid. Argued several aspects of our mind are outside conscious awareness. (e.g. research by Nisbet and Wilson 1977) so cannot be reported by individuals
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7
Q

L2: what does behaviourist approach suggest about behaviour?

A

Behaviour learned rather than inherited from parents

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8
Q

L2: what is classical conditioning?

A

It’s one way in which behaviour is learned.

Learn through association , when stimulus produces same response as another one as they have consistently been presented at the same time

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9
Q

L2: Pavlov study 1927

A
  1. Investigating salivation reflex in dogs when stimuli appeared. Explore, how dogs, learn, stimulate and food, and to dogs to salivate when Bell was rang
  2. Before conditioning:
    - food= unconditioned stimulus, producing salvation= unconditioned response. Bell= neutral stimulus produce no conditioned response.
  3. During conditioning:
    - Food= unconditioned stimulus, paired with bell= neutral stimulus. Dog eventually associated with food
  4. After conditioning:
    - bell= condition stimulus produce salvation= conditioned response
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10
Q

L3: skinner theory of operant conditioning

A
  • States organisms produced dif behaviours and these produced consequences (+ or -)
  • positive consequence= behaviour likely to be repeated
  • negative consequence = behaviour, unlikely to be repeated
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11
Q

L3: how is operant conditioning different classical conditioning?

A

Operant conditioning, reinforces responses, but not in CC.

CC explains acquisition of response (eg phobia) but OP explains maintenance

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12
Q

L3: What is reinforcement and the types of reinforcement

A
  • reinforcement is something in environment that strengthens a particular behaviour
  • Positive reinforcement - behaviour produces satisfying consequence
  • Negativereinforcement - occurs when behaviour remove something adversive and we return to the state previously (e.g. turning off alarm clock, allows us to escape unpleasant noise)
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13
Q

L3: what is punishment and the different types?

A
  • punishment occurs when behaviour leads to unpleasant consequence. So decrease in probability behaviour occur again
  • positive punishment: something unpleasant added to persons life, wasn’t there before (eg. detention)
  • Negative punishment: pleasant things removed from someone’s life
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14
Q

L3: skinner box study

A
  • Study on rats
  • Cage had speakers, lines door, etc could be electrified
  • One rat at a time, placed in the box and run around. Rats may accidentally press the lever and be rewarded by food pellet which will drop into the box. (+ reinforcement.)
  • rap continues to press lever as they learn, pressing lever letter to reward, or could avoid something unpleasant. Pressing the lever meant avoiding electric shock. (- reinforcement.)
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15
Q

L3: evaluation of the behaviourist approach (3+ 3-)

A
  1. Approach Enhanced scientific status of psych using strict scientific methods being objective, producing verifiable findings.
  2. Develop laws/principles have enabled psychologist to predict/control behaviour. But raises ethical concerns as approach could be used to control people against wishes.
  3. Approach led to several treatments like SD and token economy. But focusing only on behaviour and neglect whole person. Treatments using conditioning don’t get to root cause so patient will return to original behaviour when treatment is finished.
  4. Approach environmentally reductionist as focuses on lower level of explanation, then other approaches. Stimulus response associations lack meaning when explaining complex behaviour.
  5. Approach also environmentally deterministic. According to approach, behaviour determined by environment, so it doesn’t take into account free will
  6. Approach criticised as it uses non-human animals. Claims say it tells us a little about human behaviour as humans have cognitive factors/emotional states that influence behaviour
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16
Q

L4: what are the key assumptions of social learning theory?

A

Behaviour is land through experience, specifically observation, and imitation within social context

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17
Q

L4: what’s the stages of social learning theory?

A
  1. Modelling
  2. Imitation.
  3. Identification.
  4. Vicarious reinforcement.
  5. Mediational processes
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18
Q

L4: what is modelling and imitation? (Stages 1 and 2)

A

Modelling: for learning to take place, models must carry out behaviour to be learnt. Live Models may be parents teachers et cetera

Imitation: a lot of behaviour we acquire is through copying that modelled by others

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19
Q

L4: what is identification and vicarious reinforcement (stages 3 and 4)

A

Identification: more like it to imitate models who we admire. To identify with model must feel we are similar enough, so if they perform a behaviour consequence is for them and model

Vicarious reinforcement: Individuals, learn by observing behaviour of others and rewards/punishments they receive. We may learn behaviour, but not perform them as they have learnt behaviour as likely to be punished if displayed

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20
Q

L4: what are mediational processes? (Stage 5)

A

Must pay attention to model, then be capable of retention and remembering the behaviour. Then be motivated to imitate the behaviour due to wanting to receive same reward as model. Finally observer must consider themselves capable of reproducing behaviour.

People may not reproduce behaviour if they’re not motivated to, or they’re not capable of that

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21
Q

L4: bandura study (1961)

A
  • 36 males/ female, kids 3 to 7. Children observe a model acting aggressive, or non-aggressive with Bobo doll. Some or same-sex model other or different and model displayed, aggressive acts like striking the door with a mallet
  • after observing, children were made to feel frustrated. Showed attractive toys, but were told not allowed to play with them then take it into a room which had some toys including the doll and observed for 20 minutes
    -children observed aggressive model, reproducing behaviour towards the doll. Where as those with non-aggressive, model showing no aggressive behaviour.
  • 33% of children who observed/heard verbal aggression, repeated it, but 0% of children in the non-aggressive group displayed verbal aggression.
  • boys, more aggressive than girls and imitation was greatest when model was the same gender (identification)
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22
Q

L4: evaluation of social learning theory (1+ 4-)

A
  1. Recognises importance of behavioural and cognitive factors (meditioanl proccesses) when examining how we learn new behaviour, unlike behaviourist approach
  2. Mediational factors are inferred, so cannot measure extent of influence. SLT doesn’t explain MP and leaves this to cognitive psychologist.
  3. Theory criticise as doesn’t take into account cause and effect. Studies found children having deviant attitude, seek out pairs with similar ones, rather than becoming deviant due to peers
  4. Sees behaviour as environmentally determined so ignores role of biology. But, Bandura (1961) found in experiment boys more aggressive than girls, regardless of experimental situation they were in. Maybe due to testosterone thus behaviour is biologically determined.
  5. Able to explain behaviours like aggression, but not the learning of abstract notation like fairness and justice which aren’t observed directly
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23
Q

L5: key assumptions of cognitive approach

A

Psychology should be study of internal mental processes, like memory and the roles of schemes

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24
Q

L5: how have cognitive psychologist used computer models to explain mental processes?

A

Use computers as an analogy.

Info, inputted, through senses, coded in memory, then combined with previously stored info .

Computer models, often explain, memory, e.g. long-term memory like hard disk and ram is like working memory (memory is cleared and reset when task is being done)

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25
Q

L5: what are schemas?

A

Mental representations of experience and understanding. Help organise and interpret info in brain.

Useful as help us predict what will happen in our world based on previous experiences and enable us to process vast amount of info quickly

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26
Q

L5: how can schemas negatively impact us?

A

Could distort interpretation of sensory info

May lead to perceptual errors/inaccurate, memories

May cause bias recall as we see what we expect and faulty schemas may have a negative impact on mental health

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27
Q

L6: what is cognitive neuroscience?

A

Where cognitive and biological processes are integrated

Study of neurological structures, mechanisms and processes responsible for thinking

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28
Q

L6: Practical applications of cognitive neuroscience

A
  • PET and fMRI = used to locate different types of memory, in different areas of brain, like episodic, memories in hippocampus or semantic memories in temporal lobe
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29
Q

L6: evaluation of cognitive approach (3+ 2-)

A
  1. Approach emphasises scientific methods like lab experiments. Means highlights of control and cause an effect relationships identified. But lab experiments criticised for lacking eco-validity..
    Focus on detail of exactly what can be by recalled by partiipants in controlled environment means understanding of every day Use of memory is missing
  2. Been used to explain development of negative schema, which aid understanding of mental illnesses like depression.
  3. Influence on development of therapy. CBT aims to change negative thoughts into positive ones to treat depression.
  4. Approach uses computer models. Phrases like storage and retrieval are taken directly from computing. But important difference between the sort of info processing that takes place within computers and in the brain. Computers make no mistakes or forget what it’s been stored in hard drives where as humans do
  5. Approaching as mechanical in regarding human thinking as computer processing. Leaves little room for irrationality often seen in emotional behaviours
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30
Q

L7: key assumptions of biological approach

A

Behaviour evolved through evolutionary adaptation and genes. We have influence behaviour.

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31
Q

L7: natural selection

A

Proposed by Charles Darwin, says behaviour has been adapted and changed through this process.

It’s profitable behaviour selected inmates and hence reproduced an overtime. These behaviours will continue and increase abilities to survive.

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32
Q

L7: How are twins used to examine extent to which genes influence behaviour?

A

Studies often involve comparing likelihood of a behaviour/disorder occurring in identical twins MZ to the likelihood of the behaviour/disorder occurring among non-identical twins DZ.

If the MZ twins show a higher concordance
rate then there is argued to be a genetic component.

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33
Q

L7: coordinates are rarely 100%. What does this suggest?

A

Suggest there may be genetic influence, but some behaviours can be mixed of both genetics and environment

34
Q

L7: what is our genotype and phenotype?

A
  • Genotype - refers to the genes an individual possesses i.e. an individual’s genetic make-up.
  • Phenotype - refers to observable traits shown by an individual that are due to the combined effect of genes and environment.
35
Q

L7: how is nervous system divided?

A
  • Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord act a centre from which individual is controlled
  • Peripheral nervous system: somatic, nervous system, and autonomic nervous system. Somatic comprises muscles attached to skeleton and so, pivotal for movement. Autonomic oversees, bodily organs and involved in fight/flight response.
36
Q

L7: what’s the endocrine system and its role

A

Maintains levels of hormones in blood released by glands.

(Most important is purity gland which instruct other glands to secrete hormones when necessary)

37
Q

L8: what are neurotransmitters? How have they linked to behaviour?

A

They are chemicals released when neurons communicate with each other.

Argued the levels affect behaviour of an individual e.g. low serotonin link to depression

38
Q

L8: what are hormones? How have they linked to behaviour?

A

They released as part of the endocrine system through glands.

Biological psychologist, argue human levels, affect our behaviour, eg. high testosterone link to aggression

39
Q

L8: evaluation of biological approach (3+ 2-)

A
  1. Use a scientific method, particularly experimental methods as a main source of investigation. Experimental studies high control, so researchers can replicate them on the same conditions so more reliability of research
  2. Practical applications. Easy knowledge about neuro chemical imbalance in depression (low serotonin) led to drug treatments - SSRI,
  3. If we know we have genetic predisposition for mental disorder, gives us opportunity to avoid environmental situations which may trigger it. May develop skills that would protect them from potential influence.
  4. Approach is biologically reductionist. Reductionism states complex human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down to small components like genes and hormones. Argued, can’t fully understand behaviour if other factors are ignored cognitive and emotional factors
  5. Recently that is suggesting genetic basis for criminal behaviour has led to concerns about how info could be used. May lead to genetic screening of populations to identify genetic susceptibilities and thus discrimination of those with genetic predisposition to crime.
40
Q

L9: key assumptions of psychodynamic approach

A
  • driving force behind behaviour is unconscious mind
  • instincts & drives motivate behaviour
  • childhood pivotal
41
Q

L9: what does conscious mind contain

A

Thoughts, feelings, and memories currently aware off

42
Q

L9: what’s in preconscious mind

A

Contains thoughts, feelings and memories that we can access if we want

43
Q

L9: what’s does Freud beleive about unconscious mind

A

Belief most everyday actions not controlled, and product of unconscious.

Reveals itself in Freudian slips, creativity and nureotic symptoms.

44
Q

L9: structure of personality, and what effects it

A
  • personality tripartite structure - Id, Ego, superego

Experience and conflict as child shape development of 3 parts

45
Q

L9: What’s the Id and when does it form

A

Forms between birth and 18 months

In the unconscious mind

Focuses on self and is irrational and emotional. Deals with feelings and pleasures.

Operates on pleasure principle

46
Q

L9: What’s the ego and when does it form

A

Formed between 18months and 3 years.

In conscious mind

Rational and gets balance between id and superego.

Operates on reality principle

47
Q

L9: What’s the superego and when does it form

A

Formed between 3-6

In the unconscious mind

Acts as moral guide based on parental/societal values

Operates on morality principle

48
Q

L10: what are defence mechanisms?

A

Help ego manage conflict between id and superego.

Provide solutions to deal with unresolvable conflict and strategies to reduce anxiety . This reduces ego’s influence.

49
Q

L10: what is repression?

A

Unconscious, blocking of unacceptable thoughts

But said thoughts continue to influence behaviour

50
Q

L10: what is denial?

A

Refusal to accept reality to avoid dealing with painful feeling associated with traumatic event.

E.g. alcoholic denies they have drinking problem

51
Q

L10: what is displacement?

A

Occurs when focus of strong emotion is expressed on alternative person/object

52
Q

L10: what are the psychosexual stages?

A

Five stages, emphasising, most important driving force and development is need to express sexual energy.

Each stage expressed in different ways and different body parts

53
Q

L10: how did Freud say parents contributed to a child’s progression of psychosexual stages?

A

Says they have important role

If child allowed experience, too much/little gratification at any stage fixation maker, where child’s later, adult personality shows permanent science, reflecting stage of fixation

54
Q

L10: what are the psychosexual stages? (Table pic)

A
55
Q

L10: what’s oedipus complex?

A
  • in phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings towards mother and hatred for father.
  • They have castration anxiety, so repressed feelings for mother and identify with father. Thus internalising, general, and moral values. (His superego)
56
Q

L10: what’s the electra complex?

A
  • in phallic stage, girls experience penis envy, so desire father.

-believe they have been castrated and blame their mother.

  • overtime, give up desire for their father and replace this with desire for baby, so identify with the mother and internalise her general role and moral values (her superego)
57
Q

L10: evaluation of psychodynamic approach (2+ 3-)

A
  1. Concepts like defence mechanisms have intuitive appeal. People appreciate ideas of denial, repression and displacement.
  2. Has practical applications. Led to development of psychoanalysis, which is therapy for anxiety disorders. Late foundation for psychotherapy in modern psychiatry.
  3. Little hans case that he supports oedipus complex. But the complex only inferred from behaviour/reported thoughts were subjective interpretation is open to investigator bias. Approach lack scientific rigour
  4. Concepts like unconscious mind and defence mechanisms lack falsifiability as they’re unconscious processes, so difficult to test
  5. Concepts of approach based on small samples due to reliance of case study method. Generalisability problems.
58
Q

L11: what are the key assumptions of humanistic approach?

A
  • psychology should study whole person due to everyone being unique
  • We have free will
  • Scientific method to objective as methods, don’t acknowledge subjective experience
59
Q

L11: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (pic)

A
60
Q

L11: basic assumptions of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A
  • most basic psychological needs at the bottom
  • People motivated to achieve progression
  • Each level must be fulfilled before we can move up
  • More basic than need the more powerfully, it’s experience and more difficult to ignore
61
Q

L11: what self actualisation

A

Because when person reaches full potential and best version of themselves

62
Q

L11: characteristics of those who have attained self actualisation

A

Found these people share certain traits

Tended to be creative, accepting of others and accurate perception of the world

63
Q

L12: What are feelings of self-worth?

A

Feelings that develop in childhood due to interactions with parents

Closer perceived self is to ideal yourself, higher or feelings of self-worth

64
Q

L12: what is congruence and incongruence?

A

Congruence: similarity between perceived self and ideal self

In congruence: the difference between perceive self and ideal self

65
Q

L12: how may positive regard be given by people?

A

Given by others in unconditional forms (unconditional positive regard) when person is accepted for who they are, or conditional.

66
Q

L12: what happens when we experience conditional positive regards

A

Develop conditions of worth

Conditions believe we must meet to be accepted by others, and will only experience self acceptance if we meet said conditions

67
Q

L12: Rogers (1959) counselling psychology study

A
  • claimed psychological problems, direct result of conditional positive regard. Believe with counselling, we can solve their own problems in constructive ways and be more functioning.
  • Believe that human psychologist are guides to help us understand ourselves and enable potential for self actualisation
  • provide unconditional positive regard, expressing acceptance. So can provide supportive environment to dissolve conditions of worth. In client, moving towards being more true to self.
68
Q

L12: evaluation of humanistic approach (5-)

A
  1. Believe in Freewill. But some believe behaviour is caused by something ( ie. determinism.). Determinism allows for general laws and predictability of behaviour so limited application of humanistic approach.
  2. Lack scientific rigour. Proposes we should study whole person as everyone is unique, but science relies on reductionism. (reducing behaviour to simplest components so we can study them objectively)
  3. Proposed concepts like self actualisations lack operationalisation. No objective measure of whether someone has actually self actualise leading to lack of empirical evidence.
  4. Ideas that essential to humanist psychology like personal growth, more associated with individualist cultures in western world. Collective cultures emphasise needs of community. Maybe don’t identify easily with ideas of humanistic psychology. Thus, possible approach is product of cultural context within which it was developed.
  5. Argue approach present, overly idealised/unrealistic view of human nature. Ppl not inherently good/growth oriented as approach, suggests and ignores peoples capacity for pessimism/self-destruction
69
Q

L13: free will vs deterministic approaches

A

Free will:
- Humanistic approach

Deterministic:
- biological, behaviourist, SLT, cognitive, psychic approach

70
Q

L13: nature vs nurture vs both

A

Nature:
- biological

Nurture:
- behaviourist, SLT, humanistic

Both:
- cognitive, psychodynamic

71
Q

L13: holism vs reductionism

A

Holistic:
- SLT, pyscodynamic, humanist

Reductionism:
- biological, behaviourist, Cognitive

72
Q

L13: idiographic vs nomothetic vs both

A

Ideographic:
- humanistic

Nomothetic:
- biological, behaviourist, SLT

Both:
- Cognitive, psychodynamic

73
Q

L13: how scientific are the approaches (scientific, mostly scientific or not at all) and why?

A

Scientific:
- Biological - scientific methods e.g. brain scanning
- behaviourist - scientific methods e.g. lab experiments

Mostly scientific:
- SLT - scientific methods but also considers subjective mediational processes
- cognitive - scientific methods e.g. labs but also research concepts not directly observable e.g. cognitive errors

Not scientific:
-Psychodynamic -concepts can’t be empirically tested e.g. repressed memories
- humanist - reject scientific methods, thus can’t provide empirical evidence

74
Q

L13: application of approaches

A
  • Biological: drug treatment - e.g. SSRI’s
  • Behaviorist: token economy/ED/flooding
  • SLT: age rating on films/games
  • Cognitive : CBT, REBT, anger management
  • Psychodynamic: psychotherapy
  • Humanist: counselling
75
Q

L13: Types of determinism and the approach

A
  1. Biological -> behaviour is controlled by internal biological factors (biological approach)
  2. Environmental -> behaviour controlled by stimulus response association (behaviourist approach)
  3. Soft -> influence by environmental forces but we still have some free will (SLT)
  4. Soft. -> behaviour is controlled by schemas but we still choose what to do with the information (cognitive)
  5. Psychic -> behaving determined by unconscious instincts/drives (psychodynamic)
76
Q

L13: explanation of nature approaches

A

Biological: behaviour is result of biological factors

77
Q

L13: explanation of nurture approaches

A
  1. Behaviorist: humans are born as ‘ blank slate’ so all behaviour is learned
  2. SLT: behaviour learned through observation and imitation of models.
  3. Humanist: behaviour shaped by the environment as we strive for self actualisation.
78
Q

L13: explanation of nature and nurture approaches

A
  1. Cognitive: behaviour is a product of info processing (nature) which can be modified by experience (nurture)
  2. Psychodynamic: behaviour is the product of innate drive (nature) and childhood experiences (nurture)
79
Q

L13: Types of reductionism and their approaches

A
  1. Biological: behaviour broken down into biological processes. (Biological approach)
  2. Environmental reductionism: behaviour broken down into stimulus response association (behaviorist)
  3. Machine: comparing the human mind to a computer (cognitive)
80
Q

L13: explanation of holistic approaches

A
  1. SLT: takes into account behaviour and cognitive factors in behaviour
  2. Psychodynamic: personality is dynamic interaction between instincts, drives and childhood
  3. Humanist: focuses on understanding all aspects of human experiences
81
Q

L13: explanation of nomothetic vs ideographic vs both for approaches

A
  1. Biological: create universal laws because we share similar physiology (nomothetic)
  2. behaviorist: creates universal laws as we learned through either association or consequence (nomothetic)
  3. SLT: establish general laws e.g. vicarious reinforcement (nomothetic)
  4. humanist: focuses on subjective human experiences (ideographic)
  5. Cognitive: establish general laws e.g. thru theoretical models but also uses case studies (both)
  6. Psychodynamic: establishing general laws Eg. psychosexual stages, but uses case studies and considers child experiences (both)