Attachment

Question 1

What is developmental psychology

Answer 1

Branch of psychology concerned with progressive behavioural changes that happen across someone’s life span

Question 2

Reciprocity

Answer 2

When there’s an interaction between an adult and infant that flows both ways (taking it in turns)

Question 3

Interactional synchrony

Answer 3

When adults and babies respond in time to sustain communication, where the adults and babies mirror each other. Doing the same interactions at the same time

Question 4

Positive evaluation of caregiver and infant interactions

Answer 4

1. Interactional synchrony has been demonstrated in several studies. Meltzoff and Moore (1983) found infants as young as three days old were displaying this behaviour, which seems to suggest that the imitation behaviours are not learned and are innate.
2. Murray and Trevarthen (1985) got mothers to interact with their babies over a video monitor. In the next part of the study the babies were played a tape of their mother so she was not responding to them. The babies tried to attract their mother’s attention but when this failed they gave up responding. This shows that babies want their mothers to reciprocate.
3. Abravanal and De Yong (1991)observed infant behaviour when interacting with puppet that looked like a human mouth opening and closing. Infants made small responses to this, showing they aren’t just imitating what they see; interactional synchrony is a special social response

Question 5

Negative evaluation of caregiver and infant interactions

Answer 5

1. Babies cannot communicate so psychologists rely on inferences. They can’t be 100% sure wether infants are actually trying to communicate
2. Expressions test (tongue sticking out, yawing and smiling) are ones infants frequently make so may not be deliberately imitating what they saw

Question 6

Pre- attachment ( 0-3 months)

Answer 6

From 6 weeks of age infants become attached to their humans, preferring them to objects and events.

Question 7

Indiscriminate attachment ( 3-7 months)

Answer 7

Infants begin to discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar people, smiling more at people they know, but still let strangers hold them

Question 8

Discriminate attachment ( 7 months onwards)

Answer 8

Infants develop a specific attachment to primary attachment figure. Show separation protest (distress shown when primary attachment figures leaves them) and can also display stranger anxiety (distress caused when stranger approaches). But, P.A.F was seen to b associated with person who built the mos quality relationship, and thus not quantity of the attachment.

Question 9

Multiple attachments (7 months onward)

Answer 9

Soon after development of initial P.A.F, they form ties with people such as father and grandparents. These are secondary attachments. Fear of stranger weakens, but bond with P.A.F remains strongest

Question 10

Evaluation of stages of attachment (5-)

Answer 10

1. The data collected by Shaffer and Emerson (1964) may be unreliable because it was based on mothers’ reports of their infants. Some mothers might have been less sensitive to their infant’s protests and therefore been less likely to report them.
2. The sample was biased because it only included infants from a working-class population and thus the findings might not apply to other social groups.
3. The sample was also biased because it only included infants from individualist cultures, infants from collectivist cultures could form attachments in a different way.
4. The study does not have temporal validity, it was conducted in the 1960s and parental care of children has changed considerably since then. More women go out to work and more men stay at home.
5. Stage theories such as this one are inflexible and do not take account of individual differences, some infants might form multiple attachment first, rather than starting with a single attachment.

Question 11

Strange situation

Answer 11

Methodology used by Ainsworth et al. (1970) to investigate differences in attachments between infants and their caregivers. It was a controlled observation which took place in a room that had been furnished with some toys.
The investigators observed the infants in a series of three-minute episodes;

• mother and baby,
• stranger enters,
• mother leaves,
• mother returns, etc.

They recorded an infant’s proximity seeking, stranger anxiety, separation protest and reunion joy.

Question 12

Type A - insecure avoidant

Answer 12

20% had attachments that were classified as insecure-avoidant. Babies with this attachment style largely ignore caregiver and play independently. They show no signs of distress when the caregiver is absent (no separation protest) and continue to ignore them when they return (no reunion joy). The baby is distressed when left completely alone but is comforted by the stranger as easily as their caregiver (no stranger anxiety).

Question 13

Type B - secure attachment

Answer 13

70% of babies were described as this.

These babies happily play with their caregiver and use them as safe base when exploring room. Babies show clear distress and separation protest when caregiver leaves, even when not left alone. They seek immediate reunion (reunion joy).

Question 14

Type C - insecure resistant

Answer 14

10% of babies were placed here.

Babies who have an insecure-resistant attachment to their caregivers are fussy and cry more than other babies. They will not explore the room or play with the toys very much, instead they are clingy. The baby is distressed when the caregiver leaves (extreme separation protest), however they resist comfort from the caregiver on reunion (no reunion joy). They strongly resist the stranger’s attempts to make contact (extreme stranger anxiety).

Question 15

Positive evaluation of strange situation

Answer 15

1. The method has been replicated many times over the years, as its easy to replicate due to the high controls levels originally exerted with standardised procedures. Carried out successfully in many cultures

Question 16

Negative evaluation of strange situation (4)

Answer 16

1. Methodology was developed in the USA, so may be culturally biased. Eg. Healthy attachments in America may not be the same elsewhere, like Germany. In Germany at this time very few mothers worked (less than 1 in 5) but children were encouraged to be independent and self-reliant. Thus, behaviour exhibited by securely attached infants, such as crying when their mothers leave the room, was seen as being spoilt and so didn’t reward this behaviour.
2. Validity may be questioned, as may be argued proximity seeking could be a measure of insecurity rather than security
3. The SS is gender biased as only carried out on mother as the caregiver. Children might be insecurely attached to their mothers but securely attached to their fathers. They strange situation is therefore not measuring a child’s overall attachment style but their attachment to one individual. In fact, Main and Weston (1981) found that children behave differently depending on which parent they are with.
4. As its artificial, may not reflect their real world behaviour (lacks eco validity). Studies found that babies attachment behaviours are stronger in lab settings than they are in home environment.

Question 17

Cultural variation study: Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988).

Procedure, Findings and similarities

Answer 17

Procedure:
- meta analysis of 32 studies into attachment across cultures. They all included strange situation to measure attachment. Looked at relationship between mothers-babies under 2 years of age.
- conducted in 8 countries: eg some individualistic (USA, UK, Germany) and collectivist (Japan, Chinese, Isreal)

Findings:
- most common attachment was secure, then insure-avoidant (expect japan and Isreal, resistant moe common)
- china had lowest % of secure attachment and UK highest %
- variations within culture 1,5 times greater than variation between cultures

Similarities: suggests caregiver/infant interactions have universal characteristics. But variations also show cultural differences in child rearing and that plays important role in attachment style. Variations within culture indicate sub culture differences like social class, also play important role in attachment.

Question 18

Evaluation of cultural variation in attachment (1+ 4-)

Answer 18

1. This study is a meta-analysis, which includes a very large sample. This increases the validity of the findings.
2. Strange situation method was developed in the USA, and may not be valid in other cultures. Eg, Ainsworth assumed that willingness to explore means a child is securely attached but this may not be the case in other cultures. This means the methodology is culturally biased.
3. Infants tested in Israel were from a closed community, and thus hadn’t come into contact with strangers. Could be reason why they showed severe distress when confronted with strangers and thus classes resistant.
4. Wasn’t actually comparing cultures, but countries. Eg. The comparison with the USA and Japan. Both countries have many different sub-cultures that have different child rearing practices. One study of attachment in Tokyo found similar attachment style distributions to the USA, whereas studies in more rural areas of Japan found many more insecure-resistant infants.
5. All studies in the meta-analysis looked at mother-infant attachment, and thus not a father one. strange situation is therefore not measuring a child’s attachment style but their attachment to one individual.

Question 19

What does operant conditioning do to attachments and why

Answer 19

They strengthen attachment. The baby could receive + reinforcement for crying when they hungry. Caregiver receives - reinforcement for feeding the baby when they cry as feeding makes crying stop

Question 20

Positive evaluation of Learning Theory

Answer 20

1. The LT is plausible and scientific as its founded in established theory. Likely that association between the person of needs and person providing these needs can lead to strong attachment

Question 21

Negative evaluation of Learning Theory (4)

Answer 21

1. Harlow (1959) separated infant monkeys and put them in cages. Milk was given either by a wires mesh ‘surrogate mother’ or one made from a soft cloth. Monkeys clung to soft cloth ‘mother’, especially when scared by an adverse stimulus, even when not provided milk. Suggests comfort is more important that food when determining who babies attach to.
2. Schaffer and Emerson (1964) also found food isn’t necessary for attachments forming. Discovered babies often attach to people who play with them, rather than feed. 39% of cases baby was more attachment to someone else, even though mother had fed them
3. Theory explains how attachments form, but not why. According to Bowlby’s theory of attachment infants form attachments to caregivers to ensure protection
4. LT is environmentally reductionist as it explains complex human behaviour in simple ways. Infant-caregiver relationship is varied, sophisticated and complicated. Thus, its unlikely attachment is merely the result of caregivers providing infants with food. LT is environmentally deterministic because it states that early learning determines later attachment behaviours

Question 22

Why do attachments form

Answer 22

The principle of Bowlby’s theory is that attachment between infants and their caregivers is an instinct that has evolved because it increases the chances of both the babies’ survival and the parents’ passing on their genes. It is therefore adaptive.

Question 23

Why may infants face difficulties in forming attachments in later life

Answer 23

The critical period for attachment is before a child is two years of age. Infant’s who do not have an opportunity to form an attachment during this time will have difficulty forming attachments later on

Question 24

What are social releasers

Answer 24

Social releasers include smiling and crying, and are behaviours that elicit care giving. Babies display them to encourage their caregivers to look after them.

Question 25

What is monotropy

Answer 25

When infants form one special emotional bond (often with mothers)

Question 26

Why is monotropy important

Answer 26

The importance of monotropy is that the infant uses this relationship to form a mental view of relationships called an internal working model. Secure relationships in childhood ensure a positive working model and relationships in the future

Question 27

Evaluation of Bowlby’s monotropic theory (4-)

Answer 27

1.Schaffer and Emerson (1964) suggest that multiple attachments are more common in babies than monotropy. They found that by 18 months only 13% of the infants had only one person they were attached to.

2. Feminists like Erica Burman pointed out that the idea of monotropy being socially sensitive. Places a burden of responsibility on mothers eg. taking the blame for things going wrong in child’s life and pressure to stay at home and give up their careers. Also underestimates role of the father – saw father’s role as primarily economic. This is an outdated sexist view, as many families view both parents as equally responsible for childcare, and in many families the father is the primary caregiver.
3. Tizard and Hodges (1989) found that children who had never formed any attachments by the age of four, and were then adopted, could still form attachments to their new adopted parents. This goes against the idea of a critical period before two years of age during which an attachment must form or it never will.
4. Kegan (1984) disagreed with Bowlby about the quality of an infant’s attachment being determined by the caregiver’s sensitivity. He explained infant’s attachments to their caregivers in terms of their innate temperament. According to his theory some infants are better suited to forming attachments then others due to their innate characteristics. Rovine (1987) found infants, who were judged have signs of behavioural instability, between one - three days old, were later more likely to have an insecure attachment.

Question 28

What did Bowlby state children who suffered from prolonged emotional deprivation had?

Answer 28

Will have a lower IQ, social (delinquency) and emotional (affectionless psychopathy) difficulties and even mental health issues (such as depression).

Question 29

Bowlby (1944) experiment on maternal deprivation

Answer 29

Bowlby analysed the case histories of a number of his patients in the Child Guidance Clinic in London where he worked. All the children attending this clinic were emotionally maladjusted. He studied 88 of these children, half were caught stealing (44 thieves), the other half were a control group. Bowlby suggested that 14 of the thieves were affectionless psychopaths; they lacked affection, shame and responsibility for their actions.

Bowlby found that those individuals who had been diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths had experienced frequent early separations form their mothers (repeated stays in foster care, time in hospital etc.). 12 of the affectionless psychopaths had experienced frequent separations from their mothers compared with only 5 out of 30 of the thieves who were not classed as affectionless psychopaths. Almost none of the control group had experienced early separations from their mothers.

Question 30

Positive evaluation of Bowlby’s theory of material deprivation

Answer 30

1. Before Bowlby’s theory, hospitals wouldn’t allow parents to visit their children during stays in hospital. This often had a profound and damaging effect on the child. Nowadays parents are actively encouraged to stay in hospital with their children.
2. Spitz (1945) examined children raised in a poor quality orphanage in South America. Members of staff were overworked, under trained and rarely gave the children any attention or affection. The children displayed anaclitic depression (loss of appetite, sleeplessness and sadness).
3. Skodak and Skeeles (1949) found that children placed in institutions that only looked after them physically scored poorly on intelligence tests. However, when the same children were transferred to a different institution which gave the children emotional care the IQ scores improved by almost 30 points.

Question 31

Negative evaluation of Bowlby’s theory of material deprivation

Answer 31

1. (Tizard et al.1989) found effects of maternal deprivation to be reversible. Children who never formed attachments and were adopted after the age of four were still able to form attachments to their new parents
2. Bowlby did not really distinguish between deprivation (when the attachment figure is lost) and privation (when the child has never formed an attachment). It could be the latter that causes the extreme negative effects observed in some studies.

Question 32

What is institutional care

Answer 32

When a child’s living arrangements are outside of the family eg. hostels, children’s homes.

Question 33

What is deindividuation and what can it lead to

Answer 33

When children raised in institutions adopt rules and norms of such institution. This may impair functioning and lead to loss of personal identification.

Question 34

Romanian orphan studies - Rutter et al. (2010)

Answer 34

Procedure - study of 165 children who spent lives in Romanian orphanage, thus suffering effects of institutionalisation. Adoptees were tested at regular intervals (age 4,6,11 and 15) and assessed physical, cognitive and social development. Progress wad compared to control group of 52 British children who were adopted before age of 6 months.

Findings - at time of adoption, Romanian orphans lagged behind British ones on all measures. By age of 4, they had caught up.

Conclusions - study suggests long term-consequences of institutionalisation may be less severe than was once thought if children are adopted before six months and receive sensitive parenting. However, if children are not adopted by six months then the consequences of institionalisation are likely to be severe

Question 35

Effects of institutionalisation

Answer 35

1. Delayed intellectual development - can have low IQ and concentration problem.
2. Disinhibited attachment - children raised in institutions may not know appropriate behaviour towards strangers. Can be overly affectionate and attention-seeking
3. Emotional development - children raised in institutions can have difficulty managing their anger
4. Lacking internal working model - could have difficulties interacting with peers, forming close relationships. Also can have impaired relationships with adults
5. Quasi-autism - children may get this due to struggling to gauge meaning of social contexts and having obsessive behaviours.
6. Delayed physical development - usually physically small. Research shows a lack emotional care rather than poor nourishment causes deprivation dwarfism.

Question 36

Positive evaluation of effects of institutionalisation

Answer 36

1. Studies that investigated the effects of institutionalisation enhanced our understanding of potential negative consequences of institutional care and led to the establishment of key workers in institutions to provide emotional care for children.
2. Studies that investigated effects of institutionalisation have also led to changes adoption processes. Before, mothers were encouraged to nurse their children for as long as possible before giving them up for adoption. Today most babies are adopted within their first week of life (certainly before six months).

Question 37

Negative evaluation of effects of institutionalisation

Answer 37

1. Problems generalising findings of studies of Romanian orphans as standards of care were poor in Romanian orphanages. Romanian orphans faced much more than emotional deprivation. Physical conditions were appalling, and there was a lack of cognitive stimulation. Likely that long-term damage from institutional care only occurs when there are multiple risk factors.
2. Possible that negative effects of institutional care are reduced by sensitive parenting. Le Mare and Audet (2006) conducted longitudinal study of 36 Romanian orphans adopted to families in Canada. Adopted orphans were physically smaller than a matched control group at age four but this difference had disappeared by ten. The same was true for psychological health.
3. Adoption and control groups were not randomly allocated to conditions in studies of Romanian orphans.This means that participant variables between the children could influence the findings in unanticipated ways. The adopted children might have been adopted because of personal characteristics such as resilience or being more sociable. These characteristics might explain why they were less affected by institutional care, which lowers the validity of the research.

Question 38

Harlow study (1959) procedure and findings

Answer 38

Conducted landmark study on attachment, demonstrating mother love was not based on the feeding bond between mother-infant suggested by the theory.

Procedure: Created two wire ‘mothers’ each with different head. One was wrapped in soft cloth. 8 monkey were separated over 165 days and placed with each wire mother. 4 received milk from cloth mother, and 4 from exposed wire mother.

Findings: during the 165 days, most of the monkeys spent time with soft cloth monkey. Monkeys only stayed at non-cloth mother long enough for milk and then returned to soft-cloth one. Even when scared with mechanical teddy, they all clung to soft-cloth wire.

Question 39

Positive evaluation of Harlow (1959)

Answer 39

1. Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found food isn’t necessary for attachment forming. Discovered babies are often attached to those who play with them, rather than feed. In 39% even though mother fed the baby, they spent time with someone else.

Question 40

Negative evaluation of Harlow (1959)

Answer 40

1. Unethical study, as monkeys were removed from their mothers which may have been traumatic and also deliberately scared to see their reaction. Led to long-term damage, as when the monkeys grew up, they froze or fled in presence of other monkeys.
2. Problematic to extrapolate findings to humans infants. What applies to non-human species doesn’t always apply to human infants, as we are very psychologically different to monkeys. We also have other influences like culture and society etc.
3. Attachment bond in human-infant is more complex than monkeys. Eg, there’s several different types of attachments styles that human infants have (secure, avoidant, resistant)

Question 41

Sroufe et al. (2005) study

Answer 41

Procedure:
Began in 1975 with mother-child pairs behaviour assessed, even until today. They were assessed with questionnaires and observations. Mothers were videotapes (intra-observer reliability) while play for 10-15 mins at home.

Findings:
Children who were classed as securely attached were:
1. High social competence rating
2. Less socially isolated
3. More popular with peers
4. More empathetic

Question 42

What may occur if an infant has a lack of early attachments

Answer 42

If attachments isn’t formed during a critical period, it may result in a negative internal working model. This may lead to attachments disorder were children prefer no attachment figure and poor interaction skills.

Question 43

Positive evaluation of Sroufe eg al. (2005)

Answer 43

1. Reliable study. Simpson et al (2007) found similar results. Assessed infant attachment styles at the age of 1. Studies have found that secure infants were rated as having a higher social competence as children, and were also closer to their friends at 16 years of age.

Question 44

Negative evaluation of Sroufe eg al. (2005)

Answer 44

1. The study is deterministic, as it doesn’t take into account people’s free will to make conscious decisions. It claims early experiences have fixed effect on later childhood relationships and thus insecure infants are almost ‘doomed’ to experience emotionally unsatisfactory relationships.
2. Lots of studies that contradict claims that early attachment affect later relationship.

Question 45

Lorenz, 1939 procedure (animal studies)

Answer 45

• wanted to investigate imprinting.
• he took a clutch of goose eggs and divided them into two groups. One stayed with natural mother, while others placed in incubator. When eggs and incubator hatched, first, moving thing they saw was Lorenz.
• Then the two groups to distinguish them and put them all together

Question 46

Lorenz, 1939 findings (animal studies)

Answer 46

• Goessling quickly divide themselves up. One followed natural mother, and others, Lorenz.
• Incubator geese showed no recognition of their natural mother.
• Found this process of imprinting is restricted to a very definitive period of a young animals life, called critical period
• If young animal isn’t exposed to a moving object during the critical period, then it will not imprint.

Question 47

Lorenz, 1939 long term effects (animal studies)

Answer 47

• Lorenz noted. Several fees of imprinting are irreversible long, lasting.
• For example, one of the geese called Martina used to sleep on his bed every night .
• Also discovered early imprinting had an effect on later mate preferences, (sexual imprinting).

Question 48

Evaluation of Lorenz (1935) and imprinting (2+ 2-)

Answer 48

1. Imprinting similar to idea of critical period in maternal deprivation theory. Both suggest there’s a ‘ window of opportunity’ where attachment must form, otherwise long-term negative consequences
2. Other studies support ideas, animals are born with instinct to attach the first object they move. Gutton (1966.) showed chicken exposed tot yellow rubber gloves during feeding of first weeks of life, imprinted on the gloves.
3. Imprinting is more reversible than Lorenz thought. Gutton (1966) also found he could reverse imprinting and chickens with rubber yellow gloves. Since spending time with their own species they were able to engage in normal sexual behaviour with others.
4. Problem to extrapolate findings from animal studies to human attachment. What applies the non-humans might not necessarily imply to human infants. Psychologically different from animals and have other influences that they don’t have eg. Culture, society, etc. Attachment bond between infant and attachment figure is more complex than it is in animals, eg. (Several types of attachment like secure, avoidant etc).

Question 49

What can Insecure and secure monotropic bonds lead too

Answer 49

Secure: results in a positive internal working model and means that current (those with other children), future (those were the individuals own children) and romantic. Adult relationship relationship will be positive and secure.

Insecure: it’s associated with a fear of intimacy and a lack of commitment in adult relationships

Question 50

What does Bowlby State may happen If there is no monotropic bond formed.

Answer 50

The unprovided with an adequate internal working model.

Plus, This disruption to the mono tropic bond before the critical period leads to later emotional problems.

Question 51

Hazan and Shaver (1987) love quiz procedure

Answer 51

• Aim to test the connection between a persons infant attachment, style, internal working model and adult attachment style
• Place the quiz in the news and they ask questions about the relationships with their parents (identify infant attachment style), attitude, towards love (assessing internal, working model) and current relationship experiences (determine adult attachment style)
• Responses from, 205 men and 415 women

Question 52

Hazan and Shaver (1987) love quiz findings

Answer 52

• Adult attachment style analysis found adult attachment was similar to infant attachment.
• 56% were secure, 25% insecure, avoidant and 19% insecure resistant. Suggest most peoples infant attachment styles are the same as adult.
• found relationship between individuals internal working model and the adult attachment style. Positive internal working model tended to be more securely attached adults.
• Positive correlation between adult attachment style and love experiences. Securely attached described love experiences, happy, friendly and trusting.

Question 53

Evaluation of Hazan and Shaver (1987) love quiz (3-)

Answer 53

1. Unreliable study, other studies have failed to find strong correlation between infant and adult attachment style. Fraley (2002). Review 27 samples were infants were assessed in infancy and then later reassessed (ranged from one to 20 years later). Correlation ranging from .5 to as low as .1
2. Study is correlational rather than experimental, so we can’t determine cause an effect. Impossible to say the infant attachment style determines adult. Could be a third variable that affect both e.g. temperament
3. Study relies on participants memories about early lives to assess infant attachment style. Recollections may be flawed as memories are always accurate in the past, so study isn’t valid.

Question 54

What’s the continuity hypothesis

Answer 54

The idea that early relationships with caregivers predict later relationships in adulthood. So securely attached children will go on to be socially and emotionally competent.

Question 55

What did Schaffer and Emerson (1964) propose about the role of father and how infants attach to them

Answer 55

Found mother is primary attachment figure, but after 7 months babies form secondary attachments.

By 18 months of age 75% of infants studied had formed attachment with father

Question 56

Why many the father nor be the child’s primary attachment figure

Answer 56

• spend less time with child
• sometimes not as psychologically equipped to form an intense attachment because they lack the emotional sensitivity that women have
• biological factors: women have hormone oxytocin underlies caring behaviour, so more oriented to interpersonal goals
• some cultures dictate it’s feminine to be sensitive to needs of others

Question 57

Why does some research suggest that role of father

Answer 57

Some believe that the father fulfils a qualitatively different role from that of the mother.

Fathers provide play and stimulation to complement the role of the mother, which is to provide emotional support.

Question 58

Evaluation of role of father (4-)

Answer 58

1. Inconsistency in research as to the importance of the father’s role. Research investigating effects of growing up in single female or same-sex family show no effect on development, suggesting fathers role isn’t important
2. Seems father is less important to later development in terms of nurture. Grossman (2002) found early attachment to mother better predictor of teenage relationships. But, if father had engaged in active play in child youth, adolescent relationship with both parents strengthened
3. Research questions if father plays distinctive role. Studies show single-father more likely to adopt maternal role and be child’s P.A.F
4. Field (1978) conducted research which compared behaviours of primary caregiver mothers & primary or secondary caregiver fathers. Face-to-face interactions analysed from video footage with infants at 4 months of age. Overall, it was observed that fathers engaged more in game playing and held infants less. However, primary caretaker fathers engaged in significantly more smiling, imitative vocalisations etc than secondary caregiver fathers. The behaviour of primary caregiver fathers was comparable with that of mothers’ behaviour. This demonstrates that there is flexibility in the role of the father and how men can respond to the different needs of their children.