Issues And Debates

Question 1

L1: what is universality

Answer 1

• Psych claims to have universality = conclusions drawn can be applied to everyone, anywhere regardless of gender etc.
• Psychologists claim discovery of facts are objective, and not influenced by own values, but many dispute this

Question 2

L1: definition of gender bias

Answer 2

When psychological research may offer a view that doesn’t represent experience of men or women.

Question 3

L1: alpha bias

Answer 3

Misrepresentation of behaviour because researchers overestimate the differences between the genders = differences often devalue women.

Question 4

L1: example of Alpha bias (sociobiological theory) and its message

Answer 4

This theory argues that it’s in a males interest, impregnate many women to increase chance of genes being passed on. Women should focus on ensuring healthy survival of their future children.

The message is that sexual promiscuity in males is genetically, determined and females who engage in the same behaviour are going against nature, thus abnormal.

Question 5

L1: what is beta bias

Answer 5

Misinterpretation of behaviour as research as underestimate gender, differences. Often happens when female participants on in studies, but still assume the research can be applied to both genders.

Question 6

L1: example of beta bias in the flight or flight response

Answer 6

Any research focused exclusively on male animals and assumed there would be universal response in threatening situations.

However, Taylor et al. (2000) suggested biology, evolve to inhibit flight to fight response in women, instead exhibiting tend-and-befriend behaviour = forming groups, more effective to ensure survival of offspring, than running away

Question 7

L1: what is Androcentrism, and what is it a consequence of?

Answer 7

• Consequence of beta bias.
• If our understanding of what constitutes normal behaviour is from research that involves only males then behaviour which deviate from this is likely to be thought of as abnormal.
• This lead female behaviour being misunderstood and at worst pathologised (signs of mental illness)

Question 8

L1: Evaluation of gender bias (3+ 2-)

Answer 8

1. (+) Male researches are more likely to have their research, published and female ones and research which find gender differences is more likely to be published. Thus psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism.
2. (+) research provides scientific, justification for denying women opportunities. in 1930s research revealed intellectual activity (e.g. attending uni would shrivel women’s ovaries and reduce chances of birth = obvious lie
3. (+) gender differences over the years are based based on essentialist perspective - that gender differences are fixed and determined by nature. This isn’t necessarily true in society where men/women, both work, childcare, and domestic chores = psychological differences between men and women are less
4. (-) modern researchers have started to recognise effect of their own values on their work. Dambrin and lambert (2008) say how their gender related experiences affected their reading of events, when they investigated the reason for the lack of woman in accountancy firms
5. (-) Worell (1992) put forward criteria to avoid gender bias in research: women should be studied within meaningful life context, participate in psychological research, diversity within groups of women should be examined, rather than compared between men, and more collaborative research method used, collect qualitative data.

Question 9

L2: what is culture bias

Answer 9

Tendency to judge people in terms one’s cultural assumptions. If the norm of a particular behaviour is seen through one culture, then cultural differences in behaviour may be seen as abnormal.

Question 10

L2: how to reduce cultural bias in research

Answer 10

Researchers shouldn’t attempt to extrapolate findings to cultures that aren’t represented in the sample, or assume universal norms across cultures

Should use native research as to culture carry out, cross cultural research and be sensitive to cultural norms when designing research

Question 11

L2: what is ethnocentrism and how is it shown in research

Answer 11

Emphasising, important of the behaviour of your own culture.

In research, its communicated through views that any behaviour that doesn’t conform to (usually western) models are deficient or underdeveloped

Question 12

L2: what is cultural relativism?

Answer 12

Idea that behaviour can only be properly understood in the context of the values of the culture in which it occurs

Question 13

L2: evaluation of cultural bias in psychology (3+ 1)

Answer 13

1. (+) Historical reference to individualistic/collective cultures. Individualistic cultures are mostly western cultures, value personal freedom. Collectivist cultures, such as India and China, place more emphasis on the needs of the group. Critics argue this simple distinction is unhelpful/inaccurate though. Tokano and Osaka (1999) found 14 out of 15 studies comparing US and Japan found no evidence of traditional distinction between individualistic and collectivist cultures.
2. (+) + Cochrane and Sashidharan (1995) found that African-Caribbean immigrants 7 times more likely to be diagnosed with mental illness. Questions validity of the (DSM) and (ICD) for diagnosing individuals who are born outside of the culture that they were developed in.
3. (+) Mental illnesses in some cultures, but not others e.g. the term brain fog used in West Africa to describe, difficulty concentrating and thinking. Or in China, man who believes his penis is retracting into his body, is known as Koro.
4. (-) some evidence suggesting human behaviour is a universal. Free example, basic facial expressions for happiness in all cultures or even in the animal kingdom also interactional synchrony between infant and caregiver has been observed in many cultures

Question 14

L3: types of determinism

Answer 14

Soft determinism

Hard determinism

Question 15

L3: what is hard determinism

Answer 15

Proposes all of our traits are entirely out of our control. Behaviour has a cause and thus possible to identify these causes. I

dea is compatible with the aims of science that want to uncover casual laws that govern peoples thoughts and actions.

Hard determinism assumes we think/feel dictated by forces we can’t control

Question 16

L3: what is soft determinism?

Answer 16

Proposes traits and behaviours are determined by external/internal forces, but individual can still have some level of control via thought process.

Question 17

L3: how is science heavily deterministic in its search for casual relationships?

Answer 17

Wants to discover whether the IV lead to changes DV

If all variables are controlled, except IV, means that changes in DV variable is due to manipulation of IV.

Control group enables researcher to determine cause an effect and the goal is to predict human behaviour

Question 18

L3: the three types of hard determinism

Answer 18

Biological determinism

Environmental determinism

Psychic determinism

Question 19

L3: what does biological determinism suggest?

Answer 19

Argues our traits/ behaviours are governed by internal biological factors, like genes, etc.

There’s no doubt many of our psychological/neurological brain processes are not under conscious control plus lots of behaviours, characteristics are thought to have genetic basis.

For example, research has shown effect of hormones like testosterone and aggressive behaviour

Question 20

L3: what is environmental determinism?

Answer 20

Idea that I’ll trade/behaviours are governed by external forces: schools, parents, upbringing, etc

Behaviour approach says experience of ‘choice’ is the sum of total reinforcement, contingencies acting upon us throughout our lives.

Thus we think we are independently but Our behaviour has already been shaped by environmental events, and agent of socialisation

Question 21

L3: what is psychic determinism?

Answer 21

Idea that traits/behaviours are governed by unconscious instincts.

Psychodynamic approach sees human behaviour, as determined by unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood .

So according to Freud , no such thing as accident, and even something random (eg. slip of the tongues) can be explained as being caused by the unconscious

Question 22

L3: evaluation of determinism (3+ 2-)

Answer 22

1. (+) Chun Siong Soon et al. (2008) demonstrated that brain activity that determines simple choices occurs before we are even aware that we have made a choice. Participants were asked to decide to push a button with their left or right hand; brain imaging revealed they made their decision up to ten seconds before reporting that they were consciously aware of making a decision.
2. (+) Determinism is fundamental to the scientific focus on investigating causes of behaviour and predicting it
3. (+) prediction of human behaviour, led to development of treatment therapies, that benefited people. E.g. psychotherapeutic drug treatment for schizophrenia - disorders like schizophrenia challenges concept of free will because no one would choose to have it.
4. (-) idea of freewill has more face validity (has common sense) then determinism. Everyday experience gives people impression they are constantly exercising free will through choices they make on a given day.
5. (-) people with internal locus of control, who think they’ve a higher degree of control over their behaviour, are more healthy. Roberts et al (2000) showed adolescence who had strong belief their lives were determined by events outside of their control where at more risk of depression. Thus, thinking we have free will has positive impact on our mind and behaviour

Question 23

L4: what’s the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 23

Debate about the relative contribution of their influences in determining an individual’s behaviour.

Nature - assumes that heredity, genes, hormones etc. are more important.

Nurture - assumes that the environment and a person’s experiences etc. are more important.

Question 24

L4: how is the nature argument rooted in nativist theory

Answer 24

Rooted in this theory that knowledge and abilities are innate. Doesn’t simply refer to abilities present at birth, but any characteristics determined by genes.

Question 25

L4: how do concordance results affect the nature argument

Answer 25

The closer concordance rate for individuals with the same genes shows that nature is a major cause of mental disorders.

Eg. Concordance rates for schizophrenia in MZ twins (identical genes) is 40%, but for DZ (50% of genes in common) its is only 7%

Question 26

L4: how is the nurture argument rooted in the empiricist theory?

Answer 26

Suggest knowledge derived from learning. Environmental influences are acquired through environmental interactions, including both physical and social world.

Prenatal environmental influences a part of nature, for example, whether someone smokes or doesn’t during pregnancy

Question 27

L4: evaluation of the nature versus nurture debate (4-)

Answer 27

1. (-) interactionist approach, suggest nature and nurture are closely intertwined. General heritability figure in IQ tests is around 0.5 meaning, but genetics and environment are important in determining our intelligence.
2. (-) diathesis stress models are models of mental illness, emphasising interaction of nature and nature in causing an illness. Meaning a psychopathology like depression is caused by genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and expressed when there is an environmental trigger (stress).Tienari et al. (2004) found in a group of Finnish adoptees, most likely to get schizophrenia had biological relatives with the disorder (genes) and relationships with their adopted family that were dysfunctional (the environment).
3. (-) persons nature can affect the nurture they receive. Scarr and McCartney (1983) found children got older = seeking new experiences that suit their genes. The influence of genetics actually increases as we get older.
4. (-) studies have shown nature effect nature. Maguire et al (2000) London taxi drivers, have bigger hippocampus, then control group. Hippocampus deals with spatial memory. These drivers werent born this way, so the hippocampus has responded to the use of it

Question 28

L5: what is reducitonsim

Answer 28

Breaking complex phenomenon (like behaviour) into constituent elements.

Process considered to be desirable because complex phenomena are best understood in terms of a simple explanation.

Question 29

L5: what are the levels of explanation of reductionism and what does the reductionist approach suggest about them

Answer 29

Suggests that explanations for a behaviour should begin at the highest level and then progressively look at component elements;

• Highest level: cultural and social explanations of behaviour.
• Middle level: psychological (behavioural) explanations of behaviour.
• Lowest level: biological explanations of behaviour.

Question 30

L5: what is environmental reductionism

Answer 30

Argues behaviour can be reduced to a simple relationship between behaviour and events.

The complex emotion of attachment is reduced to a set of probabilities: the mother is likely to provide food which is reinforcing = she’s rewarding individual and so becomes a ‘loved one’.

Question 31

L5: what is biological reductionism

Answer 31

Reduces human behaviour to the actions of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones etc.

For example, suggested schizophrenia is caused by excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine because drugs that block this neurotransmitter reduce schizophrenic symptoms.

Question 32

L5: what is holism

Answer 32

Focuses on systems as a whole rather than on the constituent parts.

Suggests we cannot predict how the whole system will behave just from knowledge of the individual components.

Question 33

L5: Evaluation of reductionism (2+ 3-)

Answer 33

1. (+) Both biological/environmental reductionism are viewed as scientific. Breaking complex behaviours into small parts mean it can be scientifically tested, and explanations of behaviour based on scientific evidence will emerge.
2. (+) Biological reductionism has led to the development of biological therapies, such as drugs. Eg. SSRIs more effective than placebos at treating the symptoms of OCD. Using SSRIs in patients with OCD has helped to reduce the anxiety associated with OCD thus providing relief for some patients.
3. (-) psychologists argue biological reductionism leads to errors of understanding as it’s simplistic and ignores the complex interaction of many factors in determining behaviour. For example, to treat ADHD with drugs in the belief the condition consists of just neurochemical imbalances is to mistake the symptoms of the phenomenon for its true cause. Ritalin may reduce these symptoms, but the varied factors which gave rise to the ADHD have not been addressed. Since the success rates of drug therapy are so highly variable, the purely biological understanding seems inadequate
4. (-) Much of the research which supports environmental reductionism used nonhuman animals. Critics of reductionism point to social context where humans are put from the earliest moments of life, and to hard-to-measure factors like cognition, emotion, and intentionality. In this case as well, the reductionist position seems inadequate.
5. (-) Environmental reductionism can mean true meaning of behaviour is overlooked. Wolpe (1973) treated a women who had a phobia of insects, with systematic desensitisation, but no improvement. But, was her husband, whom she was not getting along with, had an insect nickname. Her phobia was not the result of classical conditioning but an expression of her marital difficulties.

Question 34

L6: what is the idiographic approach

Answer 34

-study of individuals and unique insights everyone provides

Question 35

L6: is the ideographic approach, quantitive or qualitative?

Answer 35

• It’s qualitative as it focuses on studying unique individuals in depth, rather than gaining numerical data from many people and determining average characteristics
• Quality over quantity
• uses qualitative methods like unstructured interviews and case studies

Question 36

L6: how is the psychodynamic approach idiographic?

Answer 36

Sigmund Froyd use case studies to understand human behaviour (eg. little Hans).

Case of 150 pages of verbatim by little Hans father and describing his life + Freids, interpretation of said events.

Freud made generalisations based on case study, but still ideographic, as they are drawn from info, gathered from unique individuals

Question 37

L6: how is the humanistic approach ideographic?

Answer 37

Humanist, favour, ideographic approach as they are concerned with studying the whole person.

What matters is the person subjective experience and know what someone else observes of their behaviour

Question 38

L6: what is the nomothetic approach?

Answer 38

• involve study of larger sample (ideally, random) to collect large amount of data to support testable hypothesis.
• wants to make general laws of behaviour that applied to everyone.

Question 39

L6: is the nomothetic approach quantitative or qualitative?

Answer 39

• Favours, quantitive research methods based on numbers (e.g. central tendency, graphs), which can be got from large groups of people.

Question 40

L6: how was the biological approach nomothetic?

Answer 40

Wants to show basic principles of how body/brain work.

In the past, made the mistake of studying men and assuming findings to be generalised to women. (e.g. fight or flight.)

Question 41

L6: how does the behaviour approach relate to thr nomothetic approach?

Answer 41

• The approach produces general laws of human behaviour
• Research may not involve thousands of people, but still seeking for one set of rules for all human and non-human animals.

Question 42

L6: how is the cognitive approach nomothetic?

Answer 42

• aims to develop general laws of behaviour, which applied to everyone like understanding memory process.
• Does this through use of case studies like HM & KF, but these are required because to understand the working of a normal mind we must look at abnormal cases.

Question 43

L6: what approaches are nomothetic and ideographic

Answer 43

Ideographic: psychodynamic approach, humanistic approach

Nomothetic: biological approach, cognitive approach, behaviourist approach

Question 44

L6: evaluation of idiographic approach (2+ 3-)

Answer 44

1. (+) The approach, provides rich and in-depth info about single cases whereas nomothetic approach can’t. Allport (1961) states, it’s only by knowing a person as an individual, we can predict what they would do in a situation
2. (+) some elements approach, like case studies and thematic analysis are scientific. Qualitative research uses reflexivity, identify influence of any bias. Reflexivity refers to the process where research things critically during research processes about factors that affect behaviour of both the participants and the researcher.
3. (-) main criticism of the approach is not very scientific, which is the main reason for the growth of posit psychology, as consider the humanist approach to not be sufficiently evident based. Psychology evidence.
4. (-) the approach may be scientific, but inability to produce general predictions. e.g. two time-consuming to produce personal therapies for everyone of the mental illness but, Allport (1961) argues the approach does allow general predictions to be made. Once enough data has been gathered from detail, observations of people.
5. (-) The approach is more time-consuming and expensive than the nomothetic approach. Both large data, but ideographic approach, collect large date from one person, but the other collects small amount of data from large amount of people. Latter is quicker as once a test has been designed, it can be generated in person quickly.

Question 45

L7: what is the term socially sensitive?

Answer 45

Describing research where the topic/group being studied have implications for certain groups of society.

May lead to changing or justification for the way, certain people are treated .

Question 46

L7: what did Sieber and Stanley (1998) identify as the four aspects in scientific research that raise equal implications in socially sensitive research

Answer 46

1. Research question: researcher must consider research question carefully. Questions like are the racial differences and intelligence may be damaging to members of a particular group.
2. Methodology used: research a must consider treatment of participants and write to confidentiality and anonymity. E.g. if someone admits to have committed a crime should the researcher maintain confidentiality
3. Institutional context: research must be mindful of how data is going to be used and consider who is funding research. If research being funded by private institution, why are they funding research and how do they intend to use findings?
4. Interpretation and application findings: lastly research and needs to consider how the findings might be applied to the real world.

Question 47

L7: evaluation of socially sensitive research (3+ 1-)

Answer 47

1. (+) socially sensitive research should be conducted as many groups in society suffer the consequences of being excluded from research/being mispresented. These misinterpretations lesson our understanding of human behaviour. This has implications as people (e.g. disabled, elderly ppl etc) on the benefits of psychological research
2. (+) psychologist deal with ethical issues in socially sensitive research by developing ethical guidelines. But these guidelines protect immediately needs of participants, but don’t deal with all possible ways. Research may inflict harm on people. E.g. Ethical guidelines don’t ask, psychologist to consider how research may be used by others.
3. (+) suggested socially, sensitive research should be avoided altogether to prevent negative consequences for certain groups. But would probably leave psychologist with only unimportant issues to examine. Siber and Stanley view is that avoiding controversial topics is avoiding responsibility thus psychologists have duty to conduct research.
4. (-) there’s always some social consequences from research, but with socially sensitive research has increased potential for more indirect impact on the group. (e.g. addicts, women) thus, not sufficient to simply safeguard interest of individual people.