L1: what is universality
- Psych claims to have universality = conclusions drawn can be applied to everyone, anywhere regardless of gender etc.
- Psychologists claim discovery of facts are objective, and not influenced by own values, but many dispute this
L1: definition of gender bias
When psychological research may offer a view that doesn’t represent experience of men or women.
L1: alpha bias
Misrepresentation of behaviour because researchers overestimate the differences between the genders = differences often devalue women.
L1: example of Alpha bias (sociobiological theory) and its message
This theory argues that it’s in a males interest, impregnate many women to increase chance of genes being passed on. Women should focus on ensuring healthy survival of their future children.
The message is that sexual promiscuity in males is genetically, determined and females who engage in the same behaviour are going against nature, thus abnormal.
L1: what is beta bias
Misinterpretation of behaviour as research as underestimate gender, differences. Often happens when female participants on in studies, but still assume the research can be applied to both genders.
L1: example of beta bias in the flight or flight response
Any research focused exclusively on male animals and assumed there would be universal response in threatening situations.
However, Taylor et al. (2000) suggested biology, evolve to inhibit flight to fight response in women, instead exhibiting tend-and-befriend behaviour = forming groups, more effective to ensure survival of offspring, than running away
L1: what is Androcentrism, and what is it a consequence of?
- Consequence of beta bias.
- If our understanding of what constitutes normal behaviour is from research that involves only males then behaviour which deviate from this is likely to be thought of as abnormal.
- This lead female behaviour being misunderstood and at worst pathologised (signs of mental illness)
L1: Evaluation of gender bias (3+ 2-)
- (+) Male researches are more likely to have their research, published and female ones and research which find gender differences is more likely to be published. Thus psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism.
- (+) research provides scientific, justification for denying women opportunities. in 1930s research revealed intellectual activity (e.g. attending uni would shrivel women’s ovaries and reduce chances of birth = obvious lie
- (+) gender differences over the years are based based on essentialist perspective - that gender differences are fixed and determined by nature. This isn’t necessarily true in society where men/women, both work, childcare, and domestic chores = psychological differences between men and women are less
- (-) modern researchers have started to recognise effect of their own values on their work. Dambrin and lambert (2008) say how their gender related experiences affected their reading of events, when they investigated the reason for the lack of woman in accountancy firms
- (-) Worell (1992) put forward criteria to avoid gender bias in research: women should be studied within meaningful life context, participate in psychological research, diversity within groups of women should be examined, rather than compared between men, and more collaborative research method used, collect qualitative data.
L2: what is culture bias
Tendency to judge people in terms one’s cultural assumptions. If the norm of a particular behaviour is seen through one culture, then cultural differences in behaviour may be seen as abnormal.
L2: how to reduce cultural bias in research
Researchers shouldn’t attempt to extrapolate findings to cultures that aren’t represented in the sample, or assume universal norms across cultures
Should use native research as to culture carry out, cross cultural research and be sensitive to cultural norms when designing research
L2: what is ethnocentrism and how is it shown in research
Emphasising, important of the behaviour of your own culture.
In research, its communicated through views that any behaviour that doesn’t conform to (usually western) models are deficient or underdeveloped
L2: what is cultural relativism?
Idea that behaviour can only be properly understood in the context of the values of the culture in which it occurs
L2: evaluation of cultural bias in psychology (3+ 1)
- (+) Historical reference to individualistic/collective cultures. Individualistic cultures are mostly western cultures, value personal freedom. Collectivist cultures, such as India and China, place more emphasis on the needs of the group. Critics argue this simple distinction is unhelpful/inaccurate though. Tokano and Osaka (1999) found 14 out of 15 studies comparing US and Japan found no evidence of traditional distinction between individualistic and collectivist cultures.
- (+) + Cochrane and Sashidharan (1995) found that African-Caribbean immigrants 7 times more likely to be diagnosed with mental illness. Questions validity of the (DSM) and (ICD) for diagnosing individuals who are born outside of the culture that they were developed in.
- (+) Mental illnesses in some cultures, but not others e.g. the term brain fog used in West Africa to describe, difficulty concentrating and thinking. Or in China, man who believes his penis is retracting into his body, is known as Koro.
- (-) some evidence suggesting human behaviour is a universal. Free example, basic facial expressions for happiness in all cultures or even in the animal kingdom also interactional synchrony between infant and caregiver has been observed in many cultures
L3: types of determinism
Soft determinism
Hard determinism
L3: what is hard determinism
Proposes all of our traits are entirely out of our control. Behaviour has a cause and thus possible to identify these causes. I
dea is compatible with the aims of science that want to uncover casual laws that govern peoples thoughts and actions.
Hard determinism assumes we think/feel dictated by forces we can’t control
L3: what is soft determinism?
Proposes traits and behaviours are determined by external/internal forces, but individual can still have some level of control via thought process.
L3: how is science heavily deterministic in its search for casual relationships?
Wants to discover whether the IV lead to changes DV
If all variables are controlled, except IV, means that changes in DV variable is due to manipulation of IV.
Control group enables researcher to determine cause an effect and the goal is to predict human behaviour
L3: the three types of hard determinism
Biological determinism
Environmental determinism
Psychic determinism
L3: what does biological determinism suggest?
Argues our traits/ behaviours are governed by internal biological factors, like genes, etc.
There’s no doubt many of our psychological/neurological brain processes are not under conscious control plus lots of behaviours, characteristics are thought to have genetic basis.
For example, research has shown effect of hormones like testosterone and aggressive behaviour
L3: what is environmental determinism?
Idea that I’ll trade/behaviours are governed by external forces: schools, parents, upbringing, etc
Behaviour approach says experience of ‘choice’ is the sum of total reinforcement, contingencies acting upon us throughout our lives.
Thus we think we are independently but Our behaviour has already been shaped by environmental events, and agent of socialisation
L3: what is psychic determinism?
Idea that traits/behaviours are governed by unconscious instincts.
Psychodynamic approach sees human behaviour, as determined by unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood .
So according to Freud , no such thing as accident, and even something random (eg. slip of the tongues) can be explained as being caused by the unconscious
L3: evaluation of determinism (3+ 2-)
- (+) Chun Siong Soon et al. (2008) demonstrated that brain activity that determines simple choices occurs before we are even aware that we have made a choice. Participants were asked to decide to push a button with their left or right hand; brain imaging revealed they made their decision up to ten seconds before reporting that they were consciously aware of making a decision.
- (+) Determinism is fundamental to the scientific focus on investigating causes of behaviour and predicting it
- (+) prediction of human behaviour, led to development of treatment therapies, that benefited people. E.g. psychotherapeutic drug treatment for schizophrenia - disorders like schizophrenia challenges concept of free will because no one would choose to have it.
- (-) idea of freewill has more face validity (has common sense) then determinism. Everyday experience gives people impression they are constantly exercising free will through choices they make on a given day.
- (-) people with internal locus of control, who think they’ve a higher degree of control over their behaviour, are more healthy. Roberts et al (2000) showed adolescence who had strong belief their lives were determined by events outside of their control where at more risk of depression. Thus, thinking we have free will has positive impact on our mind and behaviour
L4: what’s the nature vs nurture debate
Debate about the relative contribution of their influences in determining an individual’s behaviour.
Nature - assumes that heredity, genes, hormones etc. are more important.
Nurture - assumes that the environment and a person’s experiences etc. are more important.
L4: how is the nature argument rooted in nativist theory
Rooted in this theory that knowledge and abilities are innate. Doesn’t simply refer to abilities present at birth, but any characteristics determined by genes.
