memory Flashcards

1
Q

H.M.

A

was the most studied neuropsychological patient. He had one of the most severe cases of amnesia ever observed;

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2
Q

Memory:

A

the processes that allow us to record, store, and later retrieve experiences and information
Allows us to learn from experience and adapt to changing environments

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3
Q

process

A

Encoding: recording information in a form usable to memory.
Storage: the maintenance of material saved in memory.
Retrieval: locating material and bringing it into awareness so that it can be used.

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4
Q

Sensory memory

A

the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant.
The first storehouse of information.
Operates as a kind of snapshot that stores information for a brief moment in time.

Iconic memory reflects information from the visual system.
Echoic memory stores auditory information coming from the ears.
If sensory memory does not pass into short-term memory, it is lost for good.

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5
Q

Iconic Stor

A

Sperling (1960) investigated how long iconic store holds information.
Experiment 1: matrix of letters flashed to 1/20 sec. Later asked to recall as many as possible.
Experiment 2: letters presented with either H, M or L pitched tone. Specified line of the Iconic image was read before it rapidly disappeared.

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6
Q

Echoic store

A

Can keep auditory information for several seconds (Winkler et al., 2002)

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7
Q

Short-term Memory

A

Short-Term Memory Capacity:
Holds about 7 ± 2 meaningful items
Digit-span test: Used to assess a person’s short-term memory capacity
Short-Term Memory
Retention:
Rapid forgetting without
rehearsal

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8
Q

Chunking:

A

combining individual items into larger units of meaning. Items are recoded into a smaller number of larger units.
Without rehearsal STM keeps information only for about 20 seconds.

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9
Q

Rehearsal

A

the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory.
Maintains information in short-term memory when repeated.
Allows transfer of information into long-term memory.

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10
Q

Craik & Lockhart (1970)

A

Maintenance Rehearsal: simple, rote repetition
Keeps information active in working memory
Not an optimal method to transfer information into long-term memory
Elaborative Rehearsal: focusing on the meaning of information or expanding (elaborating) on it in some way
mnemonics!!!

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11
Q

Features of elaborative rehearsal

A

Organizing information
Understanding meaning of information
Applying information to one’s life
Relating information to previously learned concepts

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12
Q

Working memory

A

a memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information.
It contains a central executive processor that is involved in reasoning, decision making, and planning.
It also has three subsystems:
The visual store (visuo-spatial sketchpad);
The verbal store (phonological loop); and
The episodic buffer—which contains information that represents events and occurrences.

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13
Q

Working Memory

A

Phonological loop: stores mental representations of sounds
Visuospatial sketchpad: stores visual and spatial information
Working memory allows us to keep information in an active state so we can do something with it.
As it processes information, it uses a significant amount of cognitive resources; and the number of chunks that can be held and processed is limited.
The cognitive effort involved can make us less aware of our surroundings.
Finally, stress can reduce the capacity of working memory.

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14
Q

Ramirez & Beilock

A

) Anxious thoughts often exhaust peoples WM capacity and interfere with their performance
Testing situation
10 minutes waiting
10 minutes writing about their anxieties
Hypothesis: Students who wrote about their thoughts will not be effected by them while working on the task.
Pennebaker’s research (impact of writing)

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15
Q

Long-term memory

A

stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve.
Almost unlimited capacity.

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16
Q

Evidence for long-term memory

A

People with certain kinds of brain damage may have poor memory performance.
Results of laboratory memory studies.

17
Q

Serial position effect).

A

Primacy effect: best remembered are items that come early.
Recency effect: best remembered are items presented late.

18
Q

Three-Stage Memory Model

A

Recency effect (but not primacy effect) can be eliminated
Delayed recall (without rehearsal) shows onlyprimacy effect

Exceptions to serial position effect
Distinctiveness

19
Q

Declarative memory

A

refers to factual information; it is sometimes called explicit memory, and is further subdivided into:

Semantic memory: for general knowledge; and
Episodic memory: for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context.
In contrast with declarative memory, procedural memory refers to memory for skills and habits.
Also referred as nondeclarative memory or implicit memory.

20
Q

Declarative:

A

factual knowledge. Called declerative because in order to demonstrate our knowledge we have to describe it. It does not come automatically or unconsciously.
Episodic: persona

21
Q

Episodic

A

personal experiences, has an autobiographical flavour

22
Q

Semantic:

A

general factual knowledge

23
Q

Types of long-term memory:

A

Procedural: reflected in skills and actions. Know how without the involvement of consious recollection.(Cohen & Squire, 1980)
Motor and cognitive skills
Classically conditioned responses (HM experiment of eye blink conditioning)

Implicit memory: memory that influences our behavior without conscious awareness. Implicit memory is revealed when performance on a task is facilitated in the absence of consicous recollection.
(Claparede, 1911)
Mirror tracing task-HM

24
Q

Recognition

A

emory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives.

25
Q

Levels-of-processing theory

A

a theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed.
At shallow levels, information is processed merely in terms of its physical and sensory aspects.
At the deepest level of processing, information is analyzed in terms of its meaning.

26
Q

Levels of Processing

A

the more deeply we process information, the better we will remember it

27
Q

Structural encoding

A

remembering how the stimulus looks; shallow processing
POTATO – Is the word in capital letters?

28
Q

Phonological encoding

A

remembering how the stimulus sounds; intermediate processing
HORSE – Does the word rhyme with course?

29
Q

Semantic encoding

A

remembering what the stimulus means; deep processing
APPLE – Does the word fit in the sentence “The man peeled the ____”?

30
Q

Explicit memory

A

intentional or conscious recollection of information.

31
Q

Implicit memory

A

memories of which people are not consciously aware.
Can affect subsequent performance and behavior.
Closely related to the prejudice and discrimination people can exhibit without being aware of their underlying beliefs.

32
Q

Priming

A

: occurs when exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall related information.

33
Q

Multiple cues enhance retrieval

A

Deeper processing
Personal meaning

34
Q

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon:

A

the inability to recall information that one realizes one knows.
It occurs as a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory.

35
Q

Implicit Memory: Tulving, Schacter, & Stark (1982)

A

Word list. Multi-syllabled and relatively rare words
Some time later asked to fill in the blanks in word fragments
More than half of the words were from the word list.
Priming task: word stems or material presented have primed or activated stored mental representations of the original complete words.
The original list still in memory and implicitly influences performance.