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A-Level Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

define short term memory

A

The limited capacity memory story
- coding is mainly acousting
- capacity is 7 +-2 items
- duration is about 18 seconds

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2
Q

Define long term memory

A

The permanent memory store
- coding is mainly semantic
- unlimited capacity
- unlimited duration

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3
Q

Define coding

A

The format in which information is stored in the various memory stores

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4
Q

Define capacity

A

The amount of information that can be held in a memory store

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5
Q

Define duration

A

The length of time information can be held in memory

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6
Q

What research has been done into coding

A

Baddeley
- gave lists of words to four different groups of pps
- 1: acoustically similar
- 2: acoustically dissimilar
- 3: semantically similar
- 4: semantically dissimilar
- pps were shown the original words and asked to recall them in the correct order
- STM: worse at recalling acoustically similar words
- LTM: worse at recalling semantically similar words

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7
Q

What does semantic mean

A

Have similar meaning

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8
Q

What does acoustic mean

A

Similar sounding

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9
Q

What are examples of capacity

A
  • digit span
  • span of memory and chunking
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10
Q

What is the digit span research into capacity

A

Jacobs
- researcher reads out 4 digits
- pps recalls them out loud in the correct order
- the researcher adds 1 more digit until the pps can no longer recall them
- this was the individuals digit span
- the mean span of digits was 9.3
- mean span of letters was 7.3

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11
Q

What is the research into span of memory and chunking

A

Miller
- noticed things come in groups of 7s
- 7 days, 7 deadly sins, 7 notes
- Miller thought that the capacity of STM is about 7 +-2 items
- people can really 5 words as easily as 5 letters
- this is done by chunking

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12
Q

What is chunking

A

Grouping sets of digits or letters into units or chunking

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13
Q

What was the research done into duration

A
  • duration of STM
  • duration of LTM
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14
Q

What research was done into the duration of STM

A

Peterson + Peterson
- tester 24 in 8 trials
- in each trial the student was given a constant syllable
- also given a 3 digit number
- student then counted backwards from a number until told to stop
- counting backwards prevented mental rehearsal
- told to stop after varying periods of time
- recall worsened with more time between hearing and recall
- 3 seconds = 80% recall
- 18 seconds = 3% recall

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15
Q

What research was done into duration of LTM

A
  • Bahrick
  • studied 392 American participants between 17-74
  • high school year books were obtained
  • recall was tested in various ways
  • 1: photo recognition test consisting of 50 photos
  • 2: free recall
  • within 15 years = 90% accuracy
  • after 48 years = 70% accuracy
  • free recall was less accurate
  • 15 years = 60% accuracy
  • 48 years = 30%
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16
Q

Evaluation points for research on coding

A
  • separate memory stores
  • artificial stimuli
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17
Q

PEEL for separate memory stores = coding

A
  • strength
  • Baddeley’s study identifies a clear difference between two memory stores
  • later research showed that there are some exception to his findings
  • STM being acoustically coded and LTM being semantically coded has remained constant
  • led to the multi-store model
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18
Q

PEEL for artificial stimuli - research on coding

A
  • limitation
  • used artificial stimuli rather than meaningful material
  • word lists had no personal meaning
  • findings might not tell us much about coding in different kinds of memory tasks
  • meaningful information may use semantic coding
  • limited application
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19
Q

Evaluation for research on capacity

A
  • a valid study
  • not so many chunks
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20
Q

PEEL for a valid study - research on capacity

A
  • strength
  • study has been replicated
  • old psychology research often lacked adequate controls
  • some pps digit spans might have been underestimated
  • distracted during testing
  • Jacobs findings have been confirmed y others
  • valid test of digit span in STM
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21
Q

PEEL for not so many chunks - research on capacity

A
  • limitation
  • Miller’s research may have overestimated STM capacity
  • Cowan reviewed other research
  • concluded that STM capacity is only about 4 +-1 chunks
  • the lower end of Miller’s estimate is more appropriate
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22
Q

Evaluation points for research on duration

A
  • meaningless stimuli in STM study
  • high external validity
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23
Q

PEEL for meaningless stimuli in STM study - research on duration

A
  • limitation
  • stimulus material was artificial for Peterson + Peterson
  • not completely irrelevant
  • we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless material (phone numbers)
  • recalling constant syllables doesn’t reflect most everyday memory activities
  • lacked external validity
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24
Q

PEEL for high external validity - research on duration

A
  • strength
  • Bahrick’s study has high external validity
  • the researchers investigated meaningful meteorites
  • when the study was conducted with meaningless pictures recall rates were lower
  • findings reflect a more real estimate of he duration of STM
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25
Q

What is the multi-store model

A

A representation of how memory worlds in terms of three stores
- sensory register
- short term memory
- long term memory
Also describes how information is transferred from one store to another, what makes some memories last and some disappear

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26
Q

What is the sensory register

A
  • all stimuli from the environment pass through the sensory register
  • comprises several registers: one from each sense
  • coding for each is modality specific
  • duration is very brief (<0.5 seconds)
  • very high capacity
  • information passes to the next component if it is payed attention to
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27
Q

What is modality specific

A

Depends on the sense

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28
Q

How is vidual information coded

A

Iconic memory

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29
Q

How is acoustic information coded

A

Echoic memory

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30
Q

What happens in the STM in the MSM

A
  • information in codes mainly acoustically
  • duration is about 18 seconds unless rehearsed
  • limited capacity before forgetting occurs
  • if information is rehearsed enough is passes to LTM
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31
Q

What is maintenance rehearsal

A

When we repeat material to ourselves over and over

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32
Q

What happens in the LTM of MSM

A
  • potentially permanent memory store
  • after information has been rehearsed for a prolonged time
  • coded mostly semantically
  • duration may be up to a lifetime
  • MSM information must be transferred back to the STM via retrieval
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33
Q

Evaluation points for MSM

A
  • research support
    -COUNTERPOINT
  • more than one STM store
  • elaborative rehearsal
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34
Q

PEEL for research support

A
  • strength
  • studies showing that STM and LTM are different
  • Baddeley found that we tend to mix up word with similar meaning when using our STM
  • mix up words with similar meaning when using our LTM
  • further support from the studies of capacity and duration
  • clearly show that STM and LTM are separate

COUNTERPOINT
- we form memories related to all sorts of useful things
- many studies that support MSM used none of these
- instead they used digits, letters and words
- MSM may not be a valid model of how memory works

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35
Q

PEEL for more than one STM store - MSM

A
  • limitation
  • evidence for more than one STM store
  • Shallice + Warrington = studied KF
  • KF had amnesia
  • STM for digits was poor when read out loud to him
  • recall was much better when reading the digits to himself
  • there could even be another short term store for non verbal sounds
  • MSM is wrong in claiming that there is just one STM store processing different information
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36
Q

PEEL for elaborative rehearsal - MSM

A
  • limitation
  • prolonged rehearsal is not needed for transfer to LTM
  • the amount of rehearsal is what matters
  • the more you rehearse the more likely it is to transfer to LTM
  • called prolonged rehearsal
  • the type of rehearsal is more important than the amount of
  • elaborative rehearsal is needed for long term storage
  • linking information with existing knowledge
  • information can be transferred to LTM without prolonged rehearsal
  • doesn’t fully explain how LTS is achieved
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37
Q

What is elaborative rehearsal

A

When you link information with existing knowledge

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38
Q

What are the different types of long term memory

A
  • episodic
  • semantic
  • temporal
39
Q

Who researched the types of long term memory

A

Tulving

40
Q

What is an episodic memory

A
  • ability to recall events from our lives
  • when the event occurred, people, objects, places, behaviours
  • complex memories
  • time stamped
  • single episodes include several elements
  • require a conscious effort to recall them
41
Q

What are semantic memories

A
  • knowledge of the world
  • facts, what words and concepts mean
  • not time stamped
  • less vulnerable to distortion and forgetting than episodic memories
  • have to be recalled deliberately
42
Q

What are procedural memories

A
  • knowledge of how to do things
  • actions and skills
  • can recall without making an conscious or deliberate effort
43
Q

Evaluation points for types of long term memory

A
  • clinical evidence
    -COUNTERPOINT
  • conflicting neuroimaging evidence
  • real world application
44
Q

PEEL for clinical evidence - types of LTM

A
  • strength
  • famous case study: HM + Clive Wearing
  • episodic memories impaired due to brain damage
  • semantic memories unaffected
  • meaning of words
  • procedural memories still intact
  • could walk and speak
  • Clive was still able to play music
  • different memory stores in LTM
  • one store can be damaged but the others unaffected

COUNTERPOINT
- clinical studies are not perfect
- lack control of variables
- brain injuries experienced were unexpected
- no way to control what happened to the pps before or during the injury
- difficult to judge how much worse it was after
- lack of control limits what can be said about different types of LTM

45
Q

What happened to HM

A

Operation to remove his hippocampus

46
Q

What happened to Clive Wearing

A

Viral infection
- amnesia
- damaged hippocampus

47
Q

PEEL for conflicting neuroimaging evidence - types of LTM

A
  • limitation
  • linking types of LTM to areas of the brain
  • Buckner + Peterson: reviewed evidence regarding the location of semantic and episodic memory
  • semantic memory is located on the left side of the prefrontal cortex
  • episodic memory on the right side of the prefrontal cortex
  • other researchers link the left prefrontal cortex with encoding episodic memories
  • right side of prefrontal cortex with retrieval of episodic memories
  • challenges neurophysiological evidence
  • poor agreement with where they different types are located
48
Q

PEEL for real world application - types of LTM

A
  • strength
  • psychologists can help people with memory problems
  • as we age we experience memory loss
  • specific to episodic memories
  • Belleville: intervention to improve episodic memory in older people
  • trained pps performed better on a test of episodic memory after training g
  • distinguishes between types of LTM enable specific treatment to be developed
49
Q

Who created the working memory model

A

Baddeley + Hitch

50
Q

What is the WMM

A

Representation of STM
- STM is a dynamic processor of different types of information
- contain 3 subunits controlled by the central central executive

51
Q

What are the different components of the WMM

A
  • central executive
  • phonological loop
  • Visio-spatial sketch pad
  • episodic buffer
52
Q

What is the central executive

A
  • coordinated the activities of the three subunits in memory
  • allocates processing resources to those activities
53
Q

What is the capacity and coding of the CE

A

Coding = doesn’t store information
Capacity = very limited

54
Q

What is the phonological loop

A
  • processes information in terms of sound
  • writing and spoken material
  • divided into phonological store and articulatory process
  • information is preserved in the order it arrives
55
Q

What is the phonological store

A

Stores words you hear

56
Q

What is the articulatory process

A

Allows maintenance rehearsal

57
Q

What is the coding and capacity like in the phonological loop

A

Coding = repetition
Capacity = 2 seconds

58
Q

What is the visuo-spatial sketch pad

A
  • processes visual adn spatial information
  • mental space called our inner eye
  • divided into the visual cache and inner scribe
59
Q

What is the visual cache

A

Stores visual data

60
Q

What is the inner scribe

A

Records the arrangement of objects in the visual field

61
Q

What is the coding and capacity like in the visuo spatial sketch pad

A

Coding =
Capacity = limited, 3-4 objects

62
Q

What is the episodic buffer

A
  • brings together material from the other subunits
  • into a single memory rather than separate strands
  • provides a bridge between working memory and long term memory
  • added later on
63
Q

Evaluation points for the WMM

A
  • clinical evidence
    -COUNTERPOINT
  • dual task performance
  • nature of the central executive
64
Q

PEEL for clinical evidence

A
  • strength
  • support from Shallice and Warrington
  • case study of KF
  • poor STM ability for auditory information
  • process visual information normally
  • immediate recall of letters and digits were better when he read them than when read to him
  • visual > acoustic
  • phonological loop was damaged
  • visuo spatial sketch pad was intact
  • supports existence of separate visual and acoustic memory stores

COUNTERPOINT
- dont know if KF had other cognitive impairments
- may have affected his performance of memory tasks
- injury caused by motorbike accident
- trauma may have affected his cognitive performance
- challenges evidence

65
Q

PEEL for dual task performance - WMM

A
  • strength
  • task supports the separate existence of the visuo-spatial sketch pad
  • Baddeley: pps carried out a visual and verbal task at the same time
  • performance on each was similar to then carried out separately
  • when both visual/verbal performance declined
  • both visual tasks competing for same subsystem
  • seperate system that processes visual input
66
Q

PEEL for nature of the central executive - WMM

A
  • limitation
  • lack of clarity of the nature of the CE
  • most important and least understood - Baddeley
  • needs to be more clearly specified
  • some think it may consist separate sub components
  • CE is an unsatisfactory component
  • challenges the integrity of the WMM
67
Q

What are the two explanations of forgetting

A
  • interference
  • retrieval failure
68
Q

What is interference

A
  • forgetting becuase one memory blocks another
  • causes one or both memories being distorted or forgotten
69
Q

What are the different types of interference

A
  • proactive interference
  • retroactive interference
70
Q

What is proactive interference

A
  • older memories disrupt the recall of newer memories
  • degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar
71
Q

What is retroactive interference

A
  • occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories
  • degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar
72
Q

What research was done of the effects of similarity in forgetting

A

McGeoch + McDonald

73
Q

Effect of similarity in forgetting procedure

A
  • studied retroactive interference
  • changing amount of similarity between two sets of material
  • learn lists of 10 words until got them all correct
  • 6 groups
    1) synonyms
    2) antonyms
    3) words unrelated to the original ones
    4) consonant syllables
    5) three digit numbers
    6) no new list (control group)
74
Q

Findings and conclusion on research on effects of similarity in forgetting

A
  • synonyms produced worst recall
  • interference is strongest when the meaning are similar
  • recall improved down the list
75
Q

Explanation of the effects of similarity in forgetting

A
  • previous information makes new similar information more difficult to store
  • new information overwrites previous similar memories because of the similarities
76
Q

Evaluation points for interference explaining forgetting

A
  • real world interference
    • COUNTERPOINT
  • interference and cues
  • support from drug studies
77
Q

PEEL for real world interference - forgetting

A
  • strength
  • effects everyday situations
  • Baddeley + Hitch: rugby players
  • asked to name teams played
  • played for same time interval
  • number of games played varied
  • missing games or injury
  • more games played = poorer recall
  • increases validity of theory

COUNTERPOINT
- causing forgetting in everyday life is rare
- conditions necessary occur rarely
- unlike lab studies
- memories must be similar
- doesn’t happen often
- forgetting may be better explained by another theory

78
Q

PEEL for interference and cues - forgetting

A
  • limitation
  • temporary
  • can be overcome using cues
  • Tulving: gave pps lists of words organised by categories
  • recall 70% for the first list
  • recall worsened with additional lists
  • at the end of the procedure pps given cued recall test
  • told names of categories
  • recall rose back to 70%
  • interference causes temporary loss of accessibility to material
79
Q

PEEL for support from drug studies - forgetting + interference

A
  • strength
  • evidence for retrograde facilitation
  • Coenen: gave pps a list of words
  • asked them to recall the list later on
  • when list was learnt under influence of drug recall was poor after a week
  • when list was learned before drug was taken recall was better than placebo
  • drug improved recall
  • Wixted: drugs prevent new information reaching part of brain to be processed
  • reducing interference, reduces forgetting
80
Q

What is retrieval failure

A
  • form of forgetting
  • occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access memory
  • memory is available but not accessible
  • unless a suitable cue is provided
81
Q

What is a cue

A
  • trigger of information
  • allows us to access a memeory
  • may be meaningless or indirectly linked
  • may be external (environmental) or internal (mood, drunkenness)
82
Q

Examples of non-meaningful cues

A
  • context dependent forgetting
  • state dependent forgetting
83
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle

A

A cue that is (1) present at encoding or (2) present at retrieval
- the cues available at encoding and retrieval are different

84
Q

What is context dependent forgetting

A

Recall depends on external cues
- weather
- place

85
Q

What is state dependent forgetting

A

Recall depends on internal cues
- feeling upset
- being drunk

86
Q

Procedure of Godden + Baddeley’s study - context dependent

A
  • studies deep-sea divers
  • see if training on land helped or hindered their work underwater
  • divers learnt a list of words either underwater or on land
  • 4 conditions
    1) learn and recall on land
    2) learn and recall underwater
    3) learn on land, recall underwater
    4) learn underwater, recall on land
87
Q

Finding and conclusion of Godden + Baddeley’s study - context dependent

A
  • accuracy of recall was 40% lower with non-matching conditions
88
Q

Procedure for Carter + Cassaday’s study - state dependent

A
  • gave antihistamine drugs to pps
  • contained mild sedatives
  • internal psychological state different from teh normal state
  • had to learn lists of words and passages and then recall information
  • 4 conditions
    1) learn and recall with drug
    2) learn and recall without drug
    3) learn with drug, recall without drug
    4) learn without drug, recall with drug
89
Q

Findings for Carter + Cassaday’s study - state dependant

A
  • more forgetting when cues are different at learning and recall
90
Q

Evaluation points for retrieval failure explaining forgetting

A
  • real world application
  • research support
    -COUNTERPOINT
  • recall versus recognition
91
Q

PEEL for real world application - retrieval failure

A
  • strength
  • retrieval cues help overcome some forgetting
  • still worth paying attention to cues
  • when forgetting something
  • better to recall the environment it was first learnt in
  • strategies to use in the real world to improve recall
92
Q

PEEL for research support - retrieval failure

A
  • strength
  • impressive range of research support
  • both studies are just two examples of
  • show a lack of relevant cues at recall lead to forgetting
  • Keane: memeory researcher
  • retrieval failure is the main reason for forgetting from LTM
  • retrieval failure occurs in real world situations as well as labs

COUNTERPOINT
- Baddeley: context effects aren’t very strong
- contexts have to be very different before an effect is seen
- hard to find an environment as different as land and underwater
- learning in one room and recalling in another
- unlikely to result in much forgetting
- retrieval failure due to contextual cues may not explain much everyday forgetting

93
Q

PEEL for recall versus recognition - retrieval failure

A
  • limitation
  • context effects may depend on the type of memory being tested
  • repeated underwater experiment
  • recognition test instead of recall
  • had to say if recognised word being said to them
  • performance same for all conditions when recognition tested
  • no context effects
  • retrieval failure is a limited explanation
  • only applied when recalling information, not recognition

A-Level Psychology (11 decks)

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