Bio Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
What is the nervous system
A
Consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
- specialised network of cells
2
Q
How does the nervous system communicate
A
Electrical signals
3
Q
What is the central nervous system
A
Consists of the brain and the spinal cord
- original of all complex commands and decisions
4
Q
What is the peripheral nervous system
A
Sends information to the CNS from the outside world
- transmits messages from the CNS to the muscle and glands
5
Q
What is the somatic nervous system
A
Transmits information from receptors cells in the sense organs to the CNS
- receives information from the CNS
- directs muscles to act
6
Q
what is the autonomic nervous system
A
Transmits information to and from internal bodily organs
- system operates involuntarily
- two main divisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
7
Q
What are the two main functions of the nervous system
A
- collect, process and respond to information in the environment
- coordinate the working of different organs and cells in the body
8
Q
What is the brain
A
- center of all conscious awareness
- outer layer is the cerebral cortex
- what distinguishes our higher mental functions
- divided into two hemispheres
9
Q
How thick is the cerebral cortex
A
3 mm
10
Q
What is the spinal cord
A
- an extension of the brain
- passes messages to and from the brain
- connects nerves to the PNS
- responsible for reflex actions
11
Q
What functions does the ANS control
A
- vital functions in teh body
- breathing, heart rate, digestion, sexual arousal, stress response
- unconscious responses
12
Q
What functions do the SNS control
A
- muscle movement
- receives information from sensory receptors
- conscious processes
13
Q
What is the endocrine system
A
- one of the major information systems
- instructs glands to release hormone directly into the bloodstream
- hormones are carried towards target organs
14
Q
How does the endocrine system communicate
A
Chemicals
15
Q
What is a gland
A
- organ in the body
- synthesises substances such as hormones
16
Q
What is a hormone
A
- biochemical substance
- circulates in the blood
- only affects target organs
- produced in large quantities
- disappear quickly
- effects are very powerful
17
Q
What is the fight or flight response
A
- way animals respond when stressed
- body becomes physiologically aroused
- ready to high an aggressor or flee
18
Q
What is adrenaline
A
- hormone produced by the adrenal gland
- part of the human body’s immediate stress response system
- strong effect on the cell sin the cardiovascular system
- stimulates heart rate
19
Q
How does adrenaline stimulate heart rate
A
- contracts blood vessels
- dilating air passages
20
Q
What are the main endocrine glands in the body
A
- hypothalamus
- pituitary gland
- thyroid
- parathyroid
- adrenals
- pancreas
- ovaries
- testes
21
Q
What hormone does the thyroid gland produce
A
Thyroxine
22
Q
What does thyroxine do
A
Affects cells in the heart
- increases heart rate
Cells throughout the body
- increases metabolic rates
AFFECTS GROWTH RATES
23
Q
What does the pituitary gland do
A
Controls the release of hormone from all the other endocrine glands in the body
24
Q
What state does the fight or flight response trigger
A
- from parasympathetic system
- to sympathetic system
25
Where is adrenaline released from
Adrenal medulla
26
What happens when the threat has passes - fight or flight response
Returns to the parasympathetic nervous system
27
Are the actions of the parasympathetic system antagonistic or agonistic to the sympathetic nervous system
Antagonistic
28
Biological changes of the sympathetic state
- increased heart rate
- increased breathing rate
- dilates pupils
- inhibits digestions
- inhibits salival production
- contracts rectum
29
Biological changes of the parasympathetic state
- decreased heart rate
- decreased breathing rate
- constricts pupils
- stimulates digestion
- stimulates saliva production
- relaxes rectum
30
What is a neuron
- basic building blocks of the nervous system
- nerve cells
- process and transmit messages
- electrical and chemical signals
31
What are the different types of neurones
- sensory
- motor
- reflex
32
What is the sensory neurone
- carry messages from PNS to the CNS
33
What are relay neurons
- connect sensory and motor neurons
34
What are motor neurons
- connect the CNS to effects
- muscles and glands
35
What do sensory neurons look like
- long dendrites
- short axons
- cell body in the center
36
What do relay neurons look like
- short dendrites
- short axon
- no myelin sheath
37
What do motor neurons look like
- short dendrites
- long axons
- cell body at end
- myelinated sheath
38
Components of a neuron
- dendrites
- axon
- cell body
- myelin sheath
- nodes of Ranvier
39
Where are the nodes of Ranvier
In between the myelin sheath
40
Function of dendrites
Carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons toward the cell body
41
Function of the axon
Carries the impulses away from the cell body
42
What is the axon covered in
Myelin sheath
43
What are the gaps in between the myelin sheath called
Nodes of Ranvier
44
Where are sensory neurons found
Outside the CNS in the PNS
- clusters called ganglia
45
What charge do neurons have at resting state
Slightly negative
46
What is an action potential
The electrical impulse that travels down the axon
47
What is synaptic transmission
The process by which neighbouring neurons communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the synapse that seperate stem
48
What is a neurotransmitter
- brain chemicals
- released from synaptic vesicles
- relay signals across the synapse
- can be divided into those that perform excretory and inhibitory functions
49
What is an excitation neurotransmitter
Increases the positive charge of the postsynaptic neurone
- increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neurone will pass on the electrical impulse
- adrenaline
50
What is an inhibitory neurotransmitter
Increases the negative charge of the postsynaptic neurone
- decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neurone will pass on the electrical impulse
- serotonin
51
What are the groups called in which neurons communicate with each other
Neuronal networks
52
How are transmissions between neurons transmitted
Chemically
53
Where are neurotransmitters stored
Synaptic vesicles
54
What are neurotransmitters absorbed by after the synapse
Postsynaptic receptor sites
55
Neurotransmitters can only travel ___
One way
56
Where is acetylcholine found
Each point where a motor neuron meets a muscle
57
What is summation
The process that determines if an action potential will be triggered or not
58
When is the action potential of the postsynaptic neuron triggered
If the sum of the excitatory and inhibitory signals reaches the threshold
59
What is localisation of function
The theory that different areas of the brain
- responsible for specific behaviours, processes or activities
60
What is the motor area
A region of the frontal lobe involved in regulating movement
61
What is the somatosensory area
An area of the parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch
62
What is the visual area
A part of the occipital lobe that relieves and processes visual information
63
What is the auditory area
Located in the temporal lobe and concerned with the analysis of speech-based information
64
What is the Broca’s area
An area of the frontal lobe in the left hemisphere
65
what is Broca’s area responsible for
Speech production
66
What is the Wernike’s area
An area of the temporal lobe in the left hemisphere
67
What is the Wernike’s area responsible for
Language comprehension
68
What was the original theory before localisation of function
Holistic theory
- all parts of the brain are involved in processing thoughts and actions
69
What is lateralisation
The idea that certain physical and psychological functions are controlled or dominated by a particular hemisphere
70
What side controles the left side of the body
Right hemisphere
71
What hemisphere is language linked to
Left
72
What is the outer layer of both hemispheres
Cerebral cortex
73
What are the 4 lobes of the hemisphere
- frontal
- parietal
- occipital
- temporal
74
What does damage to the frontal lobe cause
Loss of control over fine movements
75
What does damage to the occipital lobe result in
Can produce blindness
- either right eye or both eyes
76
What is Broca’s aphasia
Characterised by speech that is slow, laborious and lacking in fluency
- difficulties with prepositions and conjunctions
77
Who was Broca’s most famous patient
Tan
78
What are the characteristics of Wernike’s aphasia
Producing nonsense words as part of the content of their speech
- neologisms
79
Evaluation points for localisation of function in the brain
- evidence from neurosurgery
- evidence from brain scans
- COUNTERPOINT
- language localisation questioned
80
PEEL for evidence from neurosurgery - localisation of function
- strength
- damage to areas of the brain have been linked to mental disorders
- neurosurgery is a last resort method for treatment
- cingulotomy: isolates the cingulate gurus which is involved in OCD
- Dougherty: 44 people with OCD who had undergone cingulotomy
- after 32 weeks
- 30% met criteria for successful response
- 14% for partial response
- suggests behaviours associated with serious mental disorders may be localised
81
PEEL for evidence from brain scans - localisation of function
- strength
- supports the idea that many everyday brain functions are localised
- Peterson:
- showed how Wernike’s area was active during listening tasks
- Broca’s area was active during a reading task
- long term memory studies showed that semantic and episodic memories are in different parts of the prefrontal cortex
- provided sound scientific evidence
COUNTERPOINT
- challenge by Lashley
- removed areas of the cortex in rats
- between 10% and 50%
- learning the route through a maze
- no area was proven to be more important in the rats ability to learn the route
- required every part of the cortex
- higher cognitive processes, learning, are not localised
82
PEEL for language localisation questioned - localisation of function
- limitation
- language may not be solely localised to Wernike’s and Broca’s area
- Dick + Tremblay
- 2% of modern researchers think language is completely controlled by these areas
- brain imaging techniques mean that neural processes in the brain can be studied with more clarity than before
- language is distributed more holistically in the brain
- language streams have been identified across the cortex
- in the right hemisphere and subcortical regions
- contradicts localisation theory
83
What is hemispheric lateralisation
The two hemispheres of the brain are functionally different
- certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere
84
Why do we say that language is localised
The two main centers are only in the left hemisphere
85
What role does the RH add to language
- produce rudimentary words and phases
- contributes emotional context to what is being said
86
Functions that aren’t lateralised
- vision
- motor
- somatosensory areas
87
What is it called when the RH controles the left side of the body
Cross wiring
- contralateral wiring
88
Why is vision so complex in lateralisation
- contralateral
- ipsilateral
89
What does ipsilateral mean
Same sided
90
Evaluation points for hemispheric lateralisation
- lateralisation in the connected brain
- one brain
91
PEEL for lateralisation in the connected brain - heliospheric lateralisation
- strength
- in connected brains the two hemispheres process information differently
- Fink: used PET scans
- identified which brain area was active during a visual processing task
- regions of the RH were more active when looking at global elements of a n image
- when looking at specific details the LH was more active
- hemispheric lateralisation occurs for both people with connected and split brains
- especially with visual processing
92
PEEL for one brain - hemispheric lateralisation
- limitation
- the idea the LH is the analyser and the RH is the synthesiser may be wrong
- may be different functions in the RH and LH
- research suggests people dont have a dominant side
- creating different personalities
- Nielsen et al: analysed brain scans
- over 1000 people between the ages of 7 and 29
- people used certain hemispheres for certain tasks
- no evidence of a dominant side
- no artist or mathematician brain
- idea of right or left-brained people is wrong
93
What is split brain research
- series of studies beginning in the 1960s
- involved people with epilepsy
- experienced surgical separation of the hemispheres
- reduced the severity of their epilepsy
- enabled the research on lateral functions of the brain in isolation
94
Who was the main researcher for split brain research
Sperry
95
Sperry’s procedure
- 11 patients who had undergone split brain procedure
- studied using special set up
- two images or words were visible in either RVF or LVF
- the image could not be converted from one hemisphere to another
96
What part of the brain was removed in split brain research
Corpus callosum
97
What were the findings of Sperry’s research
- picture shown to RVF, pps could describe what they saw
- picture shown to LVF, pps said there was nothing there
- LVF, able to match objects out of sight
- LVF, emotional response but said didnt see anything
98
Why could the pps not describe what they saw if it was in there LVF
In connected brains - messages from the RH are relayed to the language centers in the LH
- unable to happen in split brains
99
What was the conclusion for Sperry’s study
- certain functions are lateralised in the brain
- supports the view that the LH is verbal
- RH is ‘silent’ but emotional
100
Evaluation points for split brain research
- research support
- generalisation issues
101
PEEL for research support - split brains
- strength
- more recent research
- Gazzaniga: split brain pps perform better than connected brains on certain tasks
- faster at identifying the odd one out
- normal brains LH have better cognitive strategies
- watered down by the RH
- supports Sperry’s funding of the left brain and right brain being separate
102
PEEL for generalisation issues - split brain
- limitation
- causal relationships are hard to establish
- behaviours were compared to a neurotypical control group
- no pps in the control group have epilepsy = confounding variable
- any findings will be a result of epilepsy rather than split brains
- unique features of the pps is due to epilepsy
103
What is brain plasticity
Describes the brains tendency to change and adapt
- as a result of experience and new learning
- involved growth of new connections
104
What is the peak number of synaptic connections at 2-3 years old
15,000 per neurones
105
What is synaptic pruning
- rarely used connections = deleted
- frequently used connections = strengthened
106
What does synaptic pruning enable
Lifelong plasticity
107
Who did research into brain plasticity
Maguire
108
What research did Maguire conduct on brain plasticity
- studied the brains of London taxi drivers
- significantly larger volume of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus
- compared to a control group
- part of the brain associated with the development of spatial and navigational skills
- to become a taxi driver they must take a complex test
- assesses their recall of city streets and routes
109
Findings of Maguire’s study of brain plasticity
- studying for the test alters the structure of the drivers brains
- longer they had been on the job, more pronounced structural difference
- positive correlation
110
Supporting study for Maguire’s research into brain plasticity
Draganski
- imaged brains of medical students
- 3 months before and after final exam
- learning induced changes seen in the posterior hippocampus and parietal cortex
- result of learning
111
Evaluation points for brain plasticity
- negative plasticity
- age and plasticity
112
PEEL for negative plasticity - brain plasticity
- limitation
- may have negative behavioural consequences
- brains adaptation to prolonged drugs leads to poorer cognitive functions
- increased risk of dementia
- 60-80% of amputees have phantom limb syndrome
- result of cortical reorganisation in the somatosensory cortex
- brains ability to adapt to damage is not always beneficial
113
PEEL for age and plasticity - brain plasticity
- strength
- may be a life long ability
- generally plasticity reduces with age
- Bezzola: 40 hours of gold training caused changes in the neural representations of movement in pps aged 40-60
- fMRI: reduced motor cortex activity in the novice golf players compared to control group
- more efficient neural representations after training
- neural plasticity continues throughout our life
114
What is functional recovery
- form of plasticity
- following damage through trauma
- brains ability to redistribute function performed by damaged areas to un damaged areas
115
What happens to the brain during functional recovery
Forms new synaptic connections
116
Structural changes in the brain that take place during functional recovery
- axonal sprouting
- denervation supersensitivity
- recruitment of homologous areas
117
What is axonal sprouting
- growth of new nerve endings
- connect with undamaged nerve cells
- form new neuronal pathways
118
What is denervation supersensitivity
- axons that do a similar job become aroused to a higher level
- compensate for the ones that are lost
- can have negative consequences of oversensitivity to messages
119
What is recruitment of homologous areas
- opposite side of brain
- specific task can still be performed
- Broca’s area damaged = similar area on the right
- after a period of time functionality may shift back to the original side
120
Evaluation points for functional recovery
- real world application
- cognitive reserve
121
PEEL for real world application - functional recovery
- strength
- understanding has contributed to neurorehabilitation
- axonal growth encouraged new therapies to be tested
- constraint induced movement therapy
- used with stroke patients
- repeatedly practice using the affected part of the body
- research is useful in helping medical professions know when interventions need to be made
122
PEEL for cognitive reserve - functional recovery
- limitation
- level of education may recovery rates
- Schneider: more time spent in education = greater changes of disability free recovery (DFR)
- 40% who achieved DFR had 16 years of education
- 10% who had less than 12 years
- people with brain damage who had insufficient DFR are less likely to achieve full recovery
123
What are the different ways of studying the brain
- fMRI
- EEG
- ERP
- post mortem examinations
124
What does fMRI stand for
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
125
What does EEG stand for
Electroencephalogram
126
What does ERP stand for
Event related potentials
127
How do fMRIs work
- detect changes in blood oxygenation and bloody flow
- occur as a result of brain activity in specific parts of the brain
- when a part is more active it uses more oxygen, directing blood flow to that area
128
What type of image do fMRIs produce
- 3D images
- shows which part of the brain is involved in certain mental processes
- helps understand localisation of function
129
How do EEGs work
- measures electrical activity within the brain
- uses electrodes that are fixed to a skull cap
130
What type of image do EEGs produce
- represents brainwave patterns
- generated from the action of thousands of neurons
- produces an overall account of brain activity
131
Uses of EEGs
- clinicians
- indicate neurological abnormalities
- epilepsy, tumours, sleep disorders
132
What is an ERP
- statistically analysis of EEG data
133
What are post mortem examinations
- brain analysed after death
- usually have a rare disorder or experienced unusual deficits in cognitive processes or behavior
- help to establish the likely cause of the damage
- may involve comparison with a neurotypical brain
134
Strength of fMRIs
- does not rely on radiation
- virtually risk free
- non invasive
- straightforward to use
- high spatial resolution
- clear picture of how brain activity is localised
- safely provide a clear picture of
135
Limitations of fMRIs
- expensive
- poor temporal resolution (5 second time lag)
- do not truly represent moment to moment brain activity
136
Strengths of EEGs
- studying stages of sleep
- diagnosis of condition like epilepsy
- high temporal resolution
- accurately detect brain activity
137
Limitations for EEGs
- generalised nature of the information received
- not useful for pinpointing the exact source of neural activity
- can not distinguish between activities originating in different by adjacent locations
138
Strengths of ERPs
- specificity to the measurement of neural processes
- excellent temporal resolution
- used to measure cognitive functions and deficits
- allocation of attentional resources and maintenance of working memory
139
Limitations of ERPs
- lack of standardisation
- difficult to confirm findings
- background sound and extraneous materials must be completely eliminated
- not easy to achieve
140
Strengths of post mortem examinations
- foundation for early understanding of key processes in the brain
- Broca + Wernike relied on it
- used to study HM’s brain
141
Limitations of post mortem examinations
- causation is an issue within these studies
- observed damage may not be linked to the problems
- raise ethical issues of consent
- may not have given informed consent
- HM couldn’t form memories
142
What is spatial resolution
- smallest feature a scanner can detect
143
What is temporal resolution
Accuracy of scanner in relation of time or how quickly the scanner can detect changes in the brain
144
What are biological rhythms
- distinct patterns of change in body activity
- conform to cyclical time periods
- influenced by endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers
145
What are circadian rhythms
- biological rhythms
- once every 24 hours
146
Examples of circadian rhythms
- sleep/wake cycle
- core body temperature
147
What is the exogenous zeitgeber in the sleep/wake cycle
Daylight
148
What is the endogenous pacemaker in the sleep/wake cycle
Superchiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
149
What is the SCN found
Just bout the optic chiasm
150
Describe the research Michel Siffre completed looking at biological rhythms
- spent extended periods of time underground
- deprived exposure to natural light and sounds
- resurfaced in mid September 1962 thinking it was mid August
- spent 2 months underground
- biological rhythm settled to every 25 hours
151
What research has Aschoff + Wever completed looking at biological rhythms
- group of pps spend 4 weeks in a WW2 bunker
- deprived of natural light
- all but 1 had a circadian rhythm between 24-25 hours
- 1 had a circadian rhythm of 29 hours
152
What do Siffre, Aschoff + Wever’s research suggest about the sleep/wake cycle
- might be longer than 24 hours
- trained by exogenous zeitgebers such as day light
153
What research did Folkard et al complete looking into biological rhythms
- 12 pps lived in a dark cave for 3 weeks
- going to bed when the clock said 11.45 and waking at 7.45
- researchers gradually sped the clock up
- 24 hours became 22 hours
- only one pps was able to adjust comfortably to the change in cycle
- strong free running circadian rhythm cannot easily be overridden by exogenous zeitgebers
154
What is an infradian rhythm
- type of biological rhythm
- frequency of less than one cycle per 24 hours
155
Examples of infradian rhythms
- menstruation
- seasonal affective disorder
156
What is ultraradian rhythm
- type of biological rhythm
- frequency of more than one cycle every 24 hours
157
Examples of ultradian rhythms
- stages of sleep cycle
158
What controles the menstrual cycle
Changes in hormone levels
- regulate ovulation
159
What do rising levels of oestrogen cause in the menstrual cycle
Cause the ovary to develop and egg and release it
- ovulation
160
What does progesterone cause in the menstrual cycle
- helps the womb lining grow thicker
- readying the womb for pregnancy
161
What may be the exogenous zeitgeber in the menstrual cycle
Other women’s cycles
162
Who conducted research looking into the influence of pheromones on menstrual cycles
Stern + McClintock
- 1998
163
Describe Stern + McClintock’s study on synchronising of menstrual cycles
- 29 women with a history of irregular periods
- samples of pheromones taken from 9 women at different stages of their cycle
- samples treated with alcohol and frozen
- rubbed on upper lip of other pps
- sample from each day given to pps in order
- 68% of women experienced a change in their cycle
- brought them closer to their odour donor
164
What is a circannual rhythm
Works on a yearly cycle
165
What hormone has a key effect on those with seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
Melatonin
166
What affect does daylight have on those with SAD
Darker for longer
- prolonged excretion on melatonin
- less serotonin produced
167
How long do the 5 stages of sleep span
90 minutes
168
Characteristics of stage 1 and 2 of the sleep cycle
- light sleep
- person is easily woken
Brain waves
- stage 1: high frequency, short amplitude, alpha waves
- stage 2: alpha waves continue, occasional random changes (sleep spindles)
169
What happens during stage 3+4 of the sleep cycle
- deep sleep
- difficult to wake someone up
- slow wave sleep (SWS)
- delta waves
- low frequency
- higher amplitude
- some dreams can occur here
170
What happens during stage 5 of the sleep cycle
- REM sleep (rapid eye movement)
- body is paralysed
- brain activity closely resembles that of the awake brain
- theta waves
- eyes move around occasionally
- dreams normally occur here
171
What is the SCN
- tiny bundle of nerve cells
- located in the hypothalamus
- both hemispheres
- primary endogenous pacemaker
- maintains circadian rhythms
- receives information about light
172
What animal studies have been done on the SCN
DeCoursey et al (2000)
- destroyed the SCN connections in 30 chipmunks
- returned them to their natural habitat
- observed them for 80 days
- sleep/wake cycle disappeared by the end of the study
- many were killed by predators: awake at the wrong times
Ralph et al (1990)
- bred mutant hamsters
- 20 hour sleep/wake cycle
- SCN cells from foetal tissue of mutant hamsters placed in normal hamsters
- cycle of second group defaulted to 20 hours
173
Where does the SCN pass information about light to
Pineal gland
174
What does the pineal gland do during the night
Produce melatonin
- induces sleep
175
What are endogenous pacemakers
- internal body clocks
- regulate many biological rhythms
176
What are exogenous zeitgebers
- external factos
- affect or entrain our biological rhythms
177
What is entrainment
The reset of our biological clocks
178
What are the two main exogenous zeitgebers
- light
- social cues
179
What study was done looking at light as an exogenous zeitgeber
Campbell + Murphy (1998)
- light may be detected by skin receptor sites
- 15 pps were woken at various times
- light pad was shone on the back of their knees
- researchers produced a deviation in the pps usual sleep/wake cycle by up to 3 hours
- we don’t necessarily have to rely on our eyes to send information to the brain about light
180
What are the key ages for babies and their sleep/wake cycle
6 weeks - sleep/wake cycle begins
16 weeks - sleep/wake cycle entrained by schedules made by parents
181
What has research shown about beating jet lag
- exogenous zeitgeber
- adapting local times for eating and sleeping
- effective way to entrain circadian rhythms
