Gender Flashcards
1
Q
Definition of sex
A
The biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy
2
Q
Definition of gender
A
The psychological, social and cultural differences between boys/men and girls/women including attitudes, behaviours and social roles
3
Q
Definition of sex-role stereotypes
A
A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate from men and women in a given society of social group
4
Q
Definition of androgyny
A
Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in ones personality
5
Q
What does BSRI stand for
A
Bem sex role inventory
6
Q
What is the BSRI
A
The first systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale of 60 traits
- 20 masculine
- 20 feminine
- 20 neutral
Produces scores across two dimensions
- masculinity-femininity
- androgynous-undifferentiated
7
Q
Definition of chromosomes
A
Found in the nucleus of living cells and carry information in the form of genes
- 23rd pair determines the biological sex
8
Q
Definition of hormones
A
Biochemical substance that circulates in the blood but only affects target organs. Produced in large quantities by disappear quickly
- very powerful effects
9
Q
Definition of testosterone
A
- hormone
- androgen group
- produced in male testes
- associated with aggression
10
Q
Definition of oestrogen
A
- primary female hormone
- plays an important role in the menstrual cycle
- role in the reproductive system
11
Q
Definition of oxytocin
A
- hormone
- causes contraction of the uterus during labour
- stimulates lactation
12
Q
Definition for atypical sex chromosome patterns
A
- chromosome patterns that deviate from the normal XX or XY
- distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms
13
Q
What is klinefeter’s syndrome
A
- males
- extra X chromosome (XXY)
14
Q
Physical characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome
A
- reduced body hair
- some breast development
- rounding of body contours
- long gangly limbs
- underdeveloped genitals
- problems with coordination and clumsy
- susceptible to health problems commonly found in women
15
Q
Psychological characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome
A
- poor language skills
- poor reading ability
- passive, shy, lack interest in sexual activity
- don’t cope well in stressful situations
16
Q
What is Turner’s syndrome
A
- women
- only one X chromosome (XO)
17
Q
Physical characteristics of Turner’s syndrome
A
- dont have a period
- ovaries don’t develop = infertile
- dont develop breasts
- broad chest
- low set ears
- webbed neck
- high waist to hip ratio
- physically immature
- appearance of a prepubescent girl
18
Q
Psychological characteristics of Turner’s syndrome
A
- higher than average reading ability
- poor spatial skills
- poor visual memory
- poor mathematical skills
- socially immature
- trouble relating to other peers = fitting in
19
Q
Definition of gender identity
A
- child recognises they are a boy or girl
- process the ability to labels others as well
20
Q
What age is gender identity acquired
A
2
21
Q
What is gender stability
A
- child understands their own gender is fixed
- know they will be a man or women when they grow up
- think others gender can change
22
Q
What age is gender stability acquired
A
4
23
Q
What is gender constancy
A
- realise gender remains the same over time and situations
- begin to identify with others of their own gender
- behave in stereotypically gender appropriate ways
24
Q
What age is gender constancy acquires
A
6-7
25
Definition of a gender schema
- organised set of beliefs and expectations
- reflated to gender
- derived from experience
- guide a persons understanding of their own gender
- as well as stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour in general
26
SLT in gender
- way of explaining behaviours
- including both direct and indirect reinforcement
- combines learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
27
Definition of culture in gender
The ideas, customs and social behaviours of a particular group of people of society
28
Definition of media in gender
- communication channels (TV)
- films
-books
Through which news, entertainment, education and data are made available
29
Definition of gender roles
- set of behaviours and attitudes
- considered typical for one gender and atypical for another
30
Definition of gender dysphoria
- describes when a person experiences discomfort or distress
- mismatch between sex assigned at birth and their gender identity
31
What is someone’s sex determined by
- chromosomes
- hormones
- anatomy
32
Sex - nature vs nurture
- innate
- nature
33
Gender - natured vs nurture
- environmentally determined
- nature
34
What happens to sex role stereotypes throughout history and cultures
- somehow communicated throughout societies
- reinforced by parents, peers and the media
35
What is a result of sex role stereotypes
- sexist assumptions
36
What theory can sex role stereotypes support
SLT
37
What is the look of androgyny often associated with
- fashion
- music industry
38
Example of someone who is androgynous
- man or women
- competitive/aggressive at work
- caring and sensitive parent
39
Who created the BSRI
Sandra Bem
40
What is high androgyny associated with
Psychological well being
- better able to adapt to a range of situations
41
Out of ? Did people rate themselves on the BSRI
1-7
1 = never true
7 = always true
42
What does is mean if you have: in the BSRI
- high masculine
- low feminine
Masculine
43
What does is mean if you have: in the BSRI
- high feminine
- low masculine
Feminine
44
What does is mean if you have: in the BSRI
- high masculine
- high feminine
Androgynous
45
What does is mean if you have: in the BSRI
- low masculine
- low feminine
Undifferentiated
46
Examples of masculine traits in BSRI
- aggressive
- ambitious
- acts as leader
- athletic
- forceful
47
Examples of feminine traits in BSRI
- affectionate
- cheerful
- gentle
- gullible
- loyal
48
Examples of neutral traits in BSRI
- adaptive
- friendly
- happy
- likeable
- truthful
49
Evaluation points for androgyny
- quantitative approach
- valid and reliable
- counterpoint
- self awareness
50
PEEL for quantitative approach - androgyny
- strength
- measured quantitatively
- useful for research purposes
- quantify a DV
- Spence: more to gender than a set of behaviours
- qualitative methods offer a better way to analyse gender
- combine different scales
- personal attribute questionnaire (PAQ)
- both quantitative and qualitative approaches are useful to study different aspects of androgyny
51
PEEL for valid and reliable - androgyny
- strength
- at the time of development was valid and reliable
- scale made by asking 50 males and 50 female judges to rate 200 traits
- traits that scored highest in each category were added to the list
- piloted on 1000 students
- results broadly corresponded with the pps own description of their gender = validity
- follow up study produced the same results = test retest reliability
- test was both valid and reliable
COUNTERPOINT
- developed over 40 years ago
- behaviours that were ‘typical’ or ‘acceptable’ have changed since then
- scale made of stereotypical ideals of masculinity and femininity that are outdated
- scale made in the US
- other cultures may have different views of typical characteristics
- lacks temporal validity and generalisability
52
PEEL for self awareness - androgyny
- limitation
- people may not have an insight into their degree of m,f or a
- questionnaire relies of pps having an understanding of their personality and behaviour
- may not necessarily have that
- gender is a social construct
- open to interpretation
- scoring system is subjective. Scoring may differ between individuals
- individuals may not understand what certain words mean
- BSRI may not be an objective, scientific way of assessing m,f or a
53
What does the Y chromosome carry
Sed determining regio Y
- SRY
54
What does the SRY gene do
Causes tested to develop in an XY embryo
55
What do the testes produce
Androgens
- male sex hormones
56
What are the roles of hormones in gender development
- influence most of gender development
- womb = brain development, development of reproductive organs
- puberty = secondary sexual characteristics
57
What does testosterone control
- development of male sex organs during foetal development
- no testosterone = no sex organs (male)
- too much testosterone = male sex organs (female)
58
What characteristic does high levels of testosterone lead to
Aggression
- evolutionary advantage
- adaptive
- compete for mates
- hunter role
59
What does oestrogen cause in women during periods
- heightened emotions
- irritability
- PMT or PMS
(- PMS has been used as a defence case in murder trials)
60
What is the impact of oxytocin in child birth
- stimulates lactation
- reduces cortisol
- facilitates bonding
LOVE HORMONE
61
What has the fact that men produce less oxytocin lead to
Fuelled stereotypes
- less interested in intimacy and closeness in relationships
62
Evaluation points for role of chromosomes and hormones
- evidence for testosterone
- COUNTERPOINT
- social factors ignored
- reductionist
63
PEEL for evidence of testosterone - role of C and H
- strength
- supports role of sex hormones in gender development
- Wang = link between increased testosterone and sexual behaviour
- male hypogonadism = man’s testes fail to produce normal levels of testosterone
- gave 227 hypogonadal men testosterone for 18- day s
- changes in body shape, muscle strength, sexual function and libido
- improved sexual function, libido and mood
- significant increases in muscle strength
- testosterone has a powerful and direct impact on sexual arousal and physical development
COUNTERPOINT
- O’Connor = double blind, placeo study
- increased testosterone in health men
- no increase in interaction and non-interaction components of sexual behaviour
- no change in aggression or anger levels
- additional testosterone may have no effect on sexual or aggressive behaviour
64
What are interaction components of sexual behaviour
Frequency of sexual intercourse
65
What are non-interaction components of sexual behaviour
Sex drive
66
PEEL for social factors ignores - role of C and H
- limitation
- ignore the role of social factors in gender related behaviours
- Hofstede = gender roles around the world are a consequence of social norms over biology
- determined on if a country is individualist or collectivist
- individualis = more masculine
- traditionally masculine traits are more highly valued
- challenges biological explanations
- social factors may be more important in shaping gender behaviours and attitudes
67
PEEL for reductionist - role of C and H
- limitation
- biological explanations are reductionist
- ignore or underplay alternative explanations
- cognitive approach draws attention to the influye of though process like schemas
- psychodynamic approach acknowledges maturing as a factor
- importance of childhood experience
- gender is more complex than its biological influences alone
68
PEEL for atypical chromosome patterns
- nature vs nurture debate
- COUNTERPOINT
- real world applications
- sampling issue
69
PEEL for nature vs nurture debate - atypical sex chromosomes
- strength
- contributes to the nature vs nurture debate
- comparing individuals with and without these syndromes allows you to see psychological and physical differences
- these differences have a biological basis
- direct result of abnormal chromosome structures
- innate nature influences have a powerful effect on behaviour and psychology
COUNTERPOINT
- issues in leaping to this conclusion
- the difference is not causal
- environmental and social influences may be more responsible
- social immaturity (Turner’s) may be due to them being treaded immaturely by those around them
- their appearance may result in others treating them in such a way
- could be wrong to assume that psychological and behavioural differences are solely due to nature
70
PEEL for real world application - atypical sex chromosomes
- strength
- application to manage the syndromes
- continued research is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnosis
- AUS study = 87 individuals with Klinefeter;s syndrome
- those who had been identified and treated from a younger ages experienced significant benefits compared to those diagnosed in adulthood
- better able to manage their syndrome
- increased awareness has a useful application
71
PEEL for sampling issue - atypical sex chromosomes
- limitation
- may be a sampling issue with study on K syndrome
- to identify the characteristics you need to identify a large number of individuals with the syndrome and create a database
- able to then see a full range of characteristics (mild - severe)
- only those with severe symptoms are normally identified
- picture of typical symptoms is distorted
- Boada = prospective studies produce a more accurate picture of the characteristics
- many with K syndrome dont experience significant cognitive of psychological problems
- highly successful academically
- typical picture of K and T syndrome may be exaggerated
72
What is a prospective study
A study following individuals from birth
73
What are Kohlberg’s stages if development
- gender identity
- gender stability
- gender constancy
74
What is Kohlbergs cognitive development theory of gender based on
The idea that a child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age
75
What does gender run parallel with - Kohlberg
Intellectual development
76
Evaluation points for Kohlberg’s theory
- research support
- COUNTERPOINT
- methodological problem
- degree of constancy
77
PEEL for research support - kohlberg
- strength
- gender stereotyping does emerge around the age of 6 like predicted
- Damon = told a story about a boy playing with dolls
- children then asked to comment about it
- 4 year olds said it was ok
- 6 year olds said they though it was wrong
- those who had achieved gender constancy had rigid gender stereotypes
COUNTERPOINT
- an interest in gender appropriate behaviour only develops at around 6
- Bandura + Bussey = children as young as 4 felt uncomfortable playing with gender inappropriate toys compared to appropriate ones
- contradicts what Kolberg’s theory predicted
- supports the gender schema theory
78
PEEL for methodological problems - Kohlberg
- limitation
- research relies on unsatisfactory methods of assessing gender constancy
- Bem = criticised methods used
- key test is if children understand that gender stays the same despite changes in appearance and context
- younger children get confused as we as a society distinguish men and women by their appearance
- best way is to determine their genitalia
- 40% of children between the age of 3-5 were able to show gender constancy if shown an image of a naked person (questionable ethics)
- the typical way to test gender constancy may misrepresent what younger children actually know
79
PEEL for degree of constancy - Kohlberg
- limitation
- different researchers have proposed different degrees of gender constancy
- Martin = praised Kohlberg for recognising children’s understanding of their own and others gender guides their thoughts and behaviours
- exactly how and when this understanding effects children’s behaviour is unclear
- may be different degrees of gender constancy
- initial degree = orient children to the importance of gender (<6)
- second degree = heighten children’s responsiveness to gender norms
- suggests that acquiring constancy may be more gradual that originally though
80
What are the different explanations of gender development
- Kohlberg’s theory
- gender schema theory
- psychodynamic
- social learning
81
What are the effects of gender schemas after gender identity
- child will begin to search their environment for information that encourages the development of gender schemas
- contradicting Kohlberg’s theory that this only happens after gender constancy
82
Who proposed the gender schema theory
Martin and Halverson
83
How do gender schemas determine behaviour
- likely to be formed around stereotypes
- provide a framework for themselves
- children are likely to misremember or disregard behaviours that do not match their existing schema
84
How do gender schemas effect information about their in groups
- pay more attention to information relevant to their gender identity
- dont develop schemas for both genders until later on
85
What is an in group in gender
Their own gender
86
Evaluation points for gender schema theory
- research support
- earlier gender identity
- COUNTERPOINT
- cultural differences
87
PEEL for research support - GST
- strength
- key principles are supported by evidence
- M+H: children under the age of 6 are more likely to remember photos of stereotypically gender appropriate behaviours
- girls: washing dishes
- over gender inappropriate behaviours
- girls: fixing a car
- when tested after a week later
- tended to change the gender of the person to make it gender appropriate
- supports GST
- predicts that children under the age of 6 will do this
88
PEEL for earlier gender identity - GST
- limitation
- gender identity probably develops earlier than suggested
- Zosuls: longitudinal study with 82 children
- looked at the onset of gender identity
- twice weekly reports from mothers on their child’s language development between 9-21 months and videotaping
- how and when the children labelled themselves as a boy or girl was measured
- at 19 months (when the child began to communicate)
- suggests children have gender identity before but are unable to communicate it
- M+H have underestimated a child’s ability to label themselves
COUNTERPOINT
- may not be appropriate to argue specific ages
- ages are averages rather than absolutes
- children may move through stages quicker or slower than others
- the sequence of development is more important
- Zosuls findings are not a fundamental criticism
89
PEEL for cultural differences - GST
- strength
- can account for cultural differences
- Cherry: gender schemas also account for culturally appropriate gender behaviours
- traditional cultures will raise children with the same schemas
- M+H theory can explain how gender schemas are transmitted between members of a society
- contrasts with psychodynamic theories = unconscious biological urges
90
What are the 5 psychosexual stages
- oral
- anal
- phallic
- latent
- genital
91
What are the two complexes in the psychodynamic theory
- Oedipus = boys
- Electra = girls
92
What is the Oedipus complex
- phallic stage
- investors feelings towards mother
- jealous of father
- castration anxiety
- resolved = gives up his love for mother, identifies with father
93
What is the electra complex
- phallic stage
- penis envy
- competition with mother for fathers love
- double resentment towards mother
- love rival for father
- mother is blamed for having no penis
- overtime substitute want for a penis with the desire to have a baby
- identify with the mother
94
What is identification - gender
Desire to be associated with a particular person or group
- they possess certain desirable characteristics
95
What is internalisation - gender
An individual adopts the attitudes and or behaviours of another
96
Who did Freud bas the Oedipus complex of
Little Hans
97
Who was little Hans
- 5 year old boy
- fear of being bitten by a horse
- fear disappeared after the age of 6
98
Interpretations for little Han’s fear
Blinkers = dad had glasses
Beard = dad had a beard
Horse = used to play horses with dad
Being bitten = fear of castration
99
Why did Freud say little Hans was scared of horses
Transferred his fear of his father via displacement
- unconscious defence mechanism
100
Evaluation points for psychodynamic explanation of gender
- Oedipus complex
- COUNTERPOINT
- female development
- pseudoscientific
101
What influences does the SLT draw attention to in gender development
- environment
- significant people in their lives
- culture
- media
102
When is direct reinforcement likely to take place
When demonstrating stereotypically gender appropriate behaviours
Boys = active, assertive, engage in rough play
Girls = passive, gentlemen staying close to parents
103
What is differential reinforcement
The way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviours
- how a child learns their gender identity
104
Is a child more or less likely to repeat a behaviour that has been reinforced
More
105
What is vicarious (indirect) reinforcement
When you look at the consequences of others actions and choose what to do next depending on that
106
Examples of vicarious reinforcement in gender
- girl sees mother being complemented for looking pretty with makeup on = favorable
- boy sees another boy being teased for acting feminine = unfavourable
107
What is identification - SLT of gender development
The process whereby a child attaches themself to a person who is seen to be ‘like me’ or a person who ‘I want to be’
- role models
108
What do role models tend to be
- attractive
- high status
- same gender as the child
109
What is modelling
Role model = demonstrating behaviours that may be imitated
Observer = learning from the role models examples
110
What are the 4 mediation processes central to the learning of gender behaviours
- attention
- retention
- motivation
- motor reproduction
111
Evaluation points for SLT of gender development
- research support
- COUNTERPOINT
- cultural changes
- no developmental sequence
112
PEEL for research support - SLT gender
- strength
- key principles are supported by evidence
- smith + Lloyd = babies aged 4-6 months
- dressed half the time in boys clothes and half the time in girls
- when observed with adults:
- boys = hammers, adventurous, active
- girls = doll, pretty, passive
- gender development is stamped at an early age through differential reinforcement
COUNTERPOINT
- differential reinforcement may not be the cause of gender differences
- may just be responding to innate gender differences that are already there
- boys may be more active anyway = hormones
- SLT is only aplicable to how children gain gender retaliated behaviours
113
PEEL for cultual changes - SLT gender
- strength
- can explain cultural differences in stereotypical gender appropriate behaviours
- no change in humans basic biology
- shift in mindset can be explained by SLT
- new forms of gender behaviours are more likely to be reinforced and not punished
- SLT is able to explain cultural changes
114
PEEL for no developmental sequence - SLT gender
- limitation
- doesn’t provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age
- general implications of SLT are that gender behaviours can occur at any age
- illogical that children of 10 learn the same as 7 year olds
- conflicts with Kohlberg: children dont become active in their gender development until gender constancy
- influence of age and maturity is not a factor considered in SLT
115
What can we say about gender roles that are consistent between different cultures
They’re innate
116
What can we say about gender roles that are culturally specific
The influence of shared norms and socialisation is decisive
- SLT
117
What did Mead find in here study on cultural differences
Nurture
- Arapesh were gentle and responsive (femininity)
- Mundugumor were aggressive and hostile (masculinity)
- Tchambuli women were dominant and organised village life, men were passive and decorative (opposite gender roles)
118
What does Mead’s study suggest - gender roles
Many not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender
- gender roles are culturally determined
- extent to which innate behaviours are expressed is a result of cultural norms
119
What did Buss find on his study for cultural similarities
Nature
- consistent patterns of mate preferences in 37 countries across all continents
- women sought men who could offer wealth and resources
- men looked for youth and physical attractiveness
120
What did Munroe and Munroe find in their study on cultural similarities
In most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines
- men = breadwinners
- women = nurtures
121
Evaluation points for culture and gender roles
- research support
- Mead’s research
122
PEEL for research support - culture and gender roles
- strength
- influence of culture on changing gender roles is supported by evidence
- Hofstede = in industrialised cultures
- changing status and expectations for women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace, away from the domestic sphere
- breakdown of traditional stereotypes
- tradition societies women still occupy the role of house maker
- due to social, cultural and religious pressures
- gender roles are determined by cultural context
123
PEEL for Mead’s research - culture and gender roles
- limitation
- since been criticised
- accused of making generalisations based on a short period of study
- Freeman = follow up study in Papúa New Guinea
- Mead had been misled by some of her pps
- her preconceptions would have influenced her reading
- example of observer bias and ethnocentrism
- interpretations may not have been objective and questions her conclusions drawn
124
What rigid stereotypes do media provide
Men = independent, ambitious, advice givers
Women = dependant, unambiguous, advice seekers
Bussey + Bandura
125
What study did Farnham + Farragher conduct
TV shows
- men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional context
- women were seen in familial roles within domestic settings
- media may play a role in reinforcing social sterotypes
126
What does the media enable young children to do
Show that they are capable of carrying out such behaviours in the future
- self efficacy
127
What study did Mitra et al conduct
- analysed the attitudes of people who watch a TV show aimed to challenge gender stereotypes
- detective drama with 78 episodes
- girls who watched the show were more likely to see themselves as working outside the home than non-viewers
- self efficacy had changed as a result of media influence
128
Evaluation points for media and gender roles
- cultivation theory
- passive recipients
129
PEEL for cultivation theory - media and gender roles
- strength
- research into media influence has a theoretical basis
- the more time people spend in the media world. The more likely they are to believe that it reflects social reality
- Bond + Drogos = + correlation between time spent watching Jersey Shore and permissive attitudes towards casual sex
- still true when researchers controlled the influence of factors like sexual attitudes, parental attitudes and religious beliefs
- media ‘cultivates’ perception of reality and affects gender behaviour
130
PEEL for passive recipients - media and gender roles
- limitation
- may not be a causal relationship
- Durkin = even very young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages
- norms within a child’s family may be a bigger determinant
- if media matches with the family’s norms than the behaviour is likely to be reinforced
- if not the representations are likely to be rejected
- media influences are secondary to others
131
What are the biological explanations for gender dysphoria
- brain sex theory
- genetic factors
132
What is the brain sex theory
- basis in brain structure
- BED NUCLEUS OF THE STRIA TERMINALIS (BNST)
- involved in emotional responses
- larger in men than women
- female sized in transgender females
133
What is the BNST involved in
Emotional responses
- sexual behaviours in rats
134
That does the brain sex theory suggest about people with gender dysphoria
They have the BNST size of the gender they identify with
- not with the size of their biological sex
- matches with the report of transgender people that they feel that they were born into the wrong sex
135
What are the genetic factors in gender dysphoria
Coolidge et al
- 157 twin pairs: 96 MZ, 61 DZ
- 62% of the variance could be accounted for by genetic factors
- strong heritable component
Heylens et al
- compared 23 MZ and 21 DZ twins
- one was diagnosed with gender dysphoria
- 39% of MZ twins were concordant
- 0% of DZ twins were concordant
- indicates a role for genetic factors in the development of gender dysphoria
136
Evaluation points for biological explanations of gender dysphoria
- contradictory evidence
- other brain differences
137
PEEL for contradictory evident - biological explanations of gender dysphoria
- limitation
- central claims of brain sex theory have been challenged
- Hulshoff = changes in transgender individuals brains using MRI scans taken during hormone treatement
- size of BNST changed significantly over that period
- Kruijver + Zhou = BNST was examined post-morgen
- after transgender individuals had received hormone treatment
- differences in the BNST may have been due to hormone therapy
- not the cause of gender dysphoria
138
PEEL for other brain differences - biological explanations for gender dysphoria
- strength
- other brain differences associated with gender dysphoria
- Rametti = studied white matter in the brain
- analysed the brains of both male and female transgender pps
- before they began hormone treatement
- the amount and distribution of while matter better corresponded with the gender the individuals identified with. Not their sex
- early differences in the brains of transgender individuals
139
What are the social explorations of gender dysphoria
- social constructionism
- psychoanalytic theory
140
What is social constructionism
- gender identity does not reflect underlying biological differences between people
- concepts were invented by societies
141
Social constructionism in relation to gender dysphoria
- confusion arises because society forces people to be either a man or women
- not a pathological condition but a social phenomenon
142
Study done into social constructionism
McClintock
- individuals with a genetic condition in the Sambia of New Guinea
- biological men are categorised as female at birth
- have a labia and clitoris
- due to an increase of testosterone at puberty
- testes drop, clitoris enlarges into a penis
- since mixing with other cultures these individuals are said to have a pathological form of gender dysphoria
143
What is the psychoanalytic theory of gender dysphoria
Ovesey + Person
- the social relationships within the family are the cause of gender dysphoria
- boys = extreme separation anxiety before gender identity
- fantasises a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety
- boy then adopts the women’s gender identity
Stroller
- interviews
- GD biological males displayed close relationships with their mother
- strong female identification
- conflicted gender identity
144
Evaluation points for social explanations of gender dysphoria
- social constructionism
- psychoanalytic theory
145
PEEL for social constructionism - gender dysphoria
- strength
- not all cultures have two genders
- Samoa
- challenge to just male and female classification
- people starting to identify as non-binary
- shows society is catching up
- gender is best seen as a social construct than a biological fact
146
PEEL for psychoanalytic theory - gender dysphoria
- limitation
- issues with this theory
- Ovesey + Person’s study doesn’t account for gender dysphoria in biblical females
- only applied to transgender females
- Rekers = gender dysphoria in males is more likely due to the absence of the father
- rather than the fear of separation from the mother
- doesn’t provide a comprehensive account
