Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

A-Level Psychology > Gender > Flashcards

Gender Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
Psychology 101 flashcards GRE® Psychology flashcards AP® Psychology flashcards
1
Q

Definition of sex

A

The biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Definition of gender

A

The psychological, social and cultural differences between boys/men and girls/women including attitudes, behaviours and social roles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Definition of sex-role stereotypes

A

A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate from men and women in a given society of social group

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Definition of androgyny

A

Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in ones personality

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What does BSRI stand for

A

Bem sex role inventory

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What is the BSRI

A

The first systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale of 60 traits
- 20 masculine
- 20 feminine
- 20 neutral

Produces scores across two dimensions
- masculinity-femininity
- androgynous-undifferentiated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Definition of chromosomes

A

Found in the nucleus of living cells and carry information in the form of genes
- 23rd pair determines the biological sex

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Definition of hormones

A

Biochemical substance that circulates in the blood but only affects target organs. Produced in large quantities by disappear quickly
- very powerful effects

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Definition of testosterone

A
  • hormone
  • androgen group
  • produced in male testes
  • associated with aggression
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Definition of oestrogen

A
  • primary female hormone
  • plays an important role in the menstrual cycle
  • role in the reproductive system
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Definition of oxytocin

A
  • hormone
  • causes contraction of the uterus during labour
  • stimulates lactation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Definition for atypical sex chromosome patterns

A
  • chromosome patterns that deviate from the normal XX or XY
  • distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What is klinefeter’s syndrome

A
  • males
  • extra X chromosome (XXY)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Physical characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome

A
  • reduced body hair
  • some breast development
  • rounding of body contours
  • long gangly limbs
  • underdeveloped genitals
  • problems with coordination and clumsy
  • susceptible to health problems commonly found in women
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Psychological characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome

A
  • poor language skills
  • poor reading ability
  • passive, shy, lack interest in sexual activity
  • don’t cope well in stressful situations
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What is Turner’s syndrome

A
  • women
  • only one X chromosome (XO)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Physical characteristics of Turner’s syndrome

A
  • dont have a period
  • ovaries don’t develop = infertile
  • dont develop breasts
  • broad chest
  • low set ears
  • webbed neck
  • high waist to hip ratio
  • physically immature
  • appearance of a prepubescent girl
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Psychological characteristics of Turner’s syndrome

A
  • higher than average reading ability
  • poor spatial skills
  • poor visual memory
  • poor mathematical skills
  • socially immature
  • trouble relating to other peers = fitting in
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Definition of gender identity

A
  • child recognises they are a boy or girl
  • process the ability to labels others as well
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What age is gender identity acquired

A

2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What is gender stability

A
  • child understands their own gender is fixed
  • know they will be a man or women when they grow up
  • think others gender can change
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What age is gender stability acquired

A

4

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What is gender constancy

A
  • realise gender remains the same over time and situations
  • begin to identify with others of their own gender
  • behave in stereotypically gender appropriate ways
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What age is gender constancy acquires

A

6-7

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Definition of a gender schema

A
  • organised set of beliefs and expectations
  • reflated to gender
  • derived from experience
  • guide a persons understanding of their own gender
  • as well as stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour in general
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

SLT in gender

A
  • way of explaining behaviours
  • including both direct and indirect reinforcement
  • combines learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Definition of culture in gender

A

The ideas, customs and social behaviours of a particular group of people of society

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Definition of media in gender

A
  • communication channels (TV)
  • films
    -books
    Through which news, entertainment, education and data are made available
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Definition of gender roles

A
  • set of behaviours and attitudes
  • considered typical for one gender and atypical for another
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Definition of gender dysphoria

A
  • describes when a person experiences discomfort or distress
  • mismatch between sex assigned at birth and their gender identity
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

What is someone’s sex determined by

A
  • chromosomes
  • hormones
  • anatomy
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Sex - nature vs nurture

A
  • innate
  • nature
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Gender - natured vs nurture

A
  • environmentally determined
  • nature
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

What happens to sex role stereotypes throughout history and cultures

A
  • somehow communicated throughout societies
  • reinforced by parents, peers and the media
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

What is a result of sex role stereotypes

A
  • sexist assumptions
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

What theory can sex role stereotypes support

A

SLT

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

What is the look of androgyny often associated with

A
  • fashion
  • music industry
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Example of someone who is androgynous

A
  • man or women
  • competitive/aggressive at work
  • caring and sensitive parent
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Who created the BSRI

A

Sandra Bem

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

What is high androgyny associated with

A

Psychological well being
- better able to adapt to a range of situations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Out of ? Did people rate themselves on the BSRI

A

1-7
1 = never true
7 = always true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

What does is mean if you have: in the BSRI
- high masculine
- low feminine

A

Masculine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

What does is mean if you have: in the BSRI
- high feminine
- low masculine

A

Feminine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

What does is mean if you have: in the BSRI
- high masculine
- high feminine

A

Androgynous

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

What does is mean if you have: in the BSRI
- low masculine
- low feminine

A

Undifferentiated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Examples of masculine traits in BSRI

A
  • aggressive
  • ambitious
  • acts as leader
  • athletic
  • forceful
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Examples of feminine traits in BSRI

A
  • affectionate
  • cheerful
  • gentle
  • gullible
  • loyal
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

Examples of neutral traits in BSRI

A
  • adaptive
  • friendly
  • happy
  • likeable
  • truthful
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Evaluation points for androgyny

A
  • quantitative approach
  • valid and reliable
    • counterpoint
  • self awareness
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

PEEL for quantitative approach - androgyny

A
  • strength
  • measured quantitatively
  • useful for research purposes
  • quantify a DV
  • Spence: more to gender than a set of behaviours
  • qualitative methods offer a better way to analyse gender
  • combine different scales
  • personal attribute questionnaire (PAQ)
  • both quantitative and qualitative approaches are useful to study different aspects of androgyny
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

PEEL for valid and reliable - androgyny

A
  • strength
  • at the time of development was valid and reliable
  • scale made by asking 50 males and 50 female judges to rate 200 traits
  • traits that scored highest in each category were added to the list
  • piloted on 1000 students
  • results broadly corresponded with the pps own description of their gender = validity
  • follow up study produced the same results = test retest reliability
  • test was both valid and reliable

COUNTERPOINT
- developed over 40 years ago
- behaviours that were ‘typical’ or ‘acceptable’ have changed since then
- scale made of stereotypical ideals of masculinity and femininity that are outdated
- scale made in the US
- other cultures may have different views of typical characteristics
- lacks temporal validity and generalisability

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

PEEL for self awareness - androgyny

A
  • limitation
  • people may not have an insight into their degree of m,f or a
  • questionnaire relies of pps having an understanding of their personality and behaviour
  • may not necessarily have that
  • gender is a social construct
  • open to interpretation
  • scoring system is subjective. Scoring may differ between individuals
  • individuals may not understand what certain words mean
  • BSRI may not be an objective, scientific way of assessing m,f or a
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

What does the Y chromosome carry

A

Sed determining regio Y
- SRY

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

What does the SRY gene do

A

Causes tested to develop in an XY embryo

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

What do the testes produce

A

Androgens
- male sex hormones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

What are the roles of hormones in gender development

A
  • influence most of gender development
  • womb = brain development, development of reproductive organs
  • puberty = secondary sexual characteristics
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

What does testosterone control

A
  • development of male sex organs during foetal development
  • no testosterone = no sex organs (male)
  • too much testosterone = male sex organs (female)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

What characteristic does high levels of testosterone lead to

A

Aggression
- evolutionary advantage
- adaptive
- compete for mates
- hunter role

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

What does oestrogen cause in women during periods

A
  • heightened emotions
  • irritability
  • PMT or PMS
    (- PMS has been used as a defence case in murder trials)
60
Q

What is the impact of oxytocin in child birth

A
  • stimulates lactation
  • reduces cortisol
  • facilitates bonding
    LOVE HORMONE
61
Q

What has the fact that men produce less oxytocin lead to

A

Fuelled stereotypes
- less interested in intimacy and closeness in relationships

62
Q

Evaluation points for role of chromosomes and hormones

A
  • evidence for testosterone
    • COUNTERPOINT
  • social factors ignored
  • reductionist
63
Q

PEEL for evidence of testosterone - role of C and H

A
  • strength
  • supports role of sex hormones in gender development
  • Wang = link between increased testosterone and sexual behaviour
  • male hypogonadism = man’s testes fail to produce normal levels of testosterone
  • gave 227 hypogonadal men testosterone for 18- day s
  • changes in body shape, muscle strength, sexual function and libido
  • improved sexual function, libido and mood
  • significant increases in muscle strength
  • testosterone has a powerful and direct impact on sexual arousal and physical development

COUNTERPOINT
- O’Connor = double blind, placeo study
- increased testosterone in health men
- no increase in interaction and non-interaction components of sexual behaviour
- no change in aggression or anger levels
- additional testosterone may have no effect on sexual or aggressive behaviour

64
Q

What are interaction components of sexual behaviour

A

Frequency of sexual intercourse

65
Q

What are non-interaction components of sexual behaviour

A

Sex drive

66
Q

PEEL for social factors ignores - role of C and H

A
  • limitation
  • ignore the role of social factors in gender related behaviours
  • Hofstede = gender roles around the world are a consequence of social norms over biology
  • determined on if a country is individualist or collectivist
  • individualis = more masculine
  • traditionally masculine traits are more highly valued
  • challenges biological explanations
  • social factors may be more important in shaping gender behaviours and attitudes
67
Q

PEEL for reductionist - role of C and H

A
  • limitation
  • biological explanations are reductionist
  • ignore or underplay alternative explanations
  • cognitive approach draws attention to the influye of though process like schemas
  • psychodynamic approach acknowledges maturing as a factor
    - importance of childhood experience
  • gender is more complex than its biological influences alone
68
Q

PEEL for atypical chromosome patterns

A
  • nature vs nurture debate
    • COUNTERPOINT
  • real world applications
  • sampling issue
69
Q

PEEL for nature vs nurture debate - atypical sex chromosomes

A
  • strength
  • contributes to the nature vs nurture debate
  • comparing individuals with and without these syndromes allows you to see psychological and physical differences
  • these differences have a biological basis
  • direct result of abnormal chromosome structures
  • innate nature influences have a powerful effect on behaviour and psychology

COUNTERPOINT
- issues in leaping to this conclusion
- the difference is not causal
- environmental and social influences may be more responsible
- social immaturity (Turner’s) may be due to them being treaded immaturely by those around them
- their appearance may result in others treating them in such a way
- could be wrong to assume that psychological and behavioural differences are solely due to nature

70
Q

PEEL for real world application - atypical sex chromosomes

A
  • strength
  • application to manage the syndromes
  • continued research is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnosis
  • AUS study = 87 individuals with Klinefeter;s syndrome
  • those who had been identified and treated from a younger ages experienced significant benefits compared to those diagnosed in adulthood
  • better able to manage their syndrome
  • increased awareness has a useful application
71
Q

PEEL for sampling issue - atypical sex chromosomes

A
  • limitation
  • may be a sampling issue with study on K syndrome
  • to identify the characteristics you need to identify a large number of individuals with the syndrome and create a database
  • able to then see a full range of characteristics (mild - severe)
  • only those with severe symptoms are normally identified
  • picture of typical symptoms is distorted
  • Boada = prospective studies produce a more accurate picture of the characteristics
  • many with K syndrome dont experience significant cognitive of psychological problems
  • highly successful academically
  • typical picture of K and T syndrome may be exaggerated
72
Q

What is a prospective study

A

A study following individuals from birth

73
Q

What are Kohlberg’s stages if development

A
  • gender identity
  • gender stability
  • gender constancy
74
Q

What is Kohlbergs cognitive development theory of gender based on

A

The idea that a child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age

75
Q

What does gender run parallel with - Kohlberg

A

Intellectual development

76
Q

Evaluation points for Kohlberg’s theory

A
  • research support
    • COUNTERPOINT
  • methodological problem
  • degree of constancy
77
Q

PEEL for research support - kohlberg

A
  • strength
  • gender stereotyping does emerge around the age of 6 like predicted
  • Damon = told a story about a boy playing with dolls
  • children then asked to comment about it
  • 4 year olds said it was ok
  • 6 year olds said they though it was wrong
  • those who had achieved gender constancy had rigid gender stereotypes

COUNTERPOINT
- an interest in gender appropriate behaviour only develops at around 6
- Bandura + Bussey = children as young as 4 felt uncomfortable playing with gender inappropriate toys compared to appropriate ones
- contradicts what Kolberg’s theory predicted
- supports the gender schema theory

78
Q

PEEL for methodological problems - Kohlberg

A
  • limitation
  • research relies on unsatisfactory methods of assessing gender constancy
  • Bem = criticised methods used
  • key test is if children understand that gender stays the same despite changes in appearance and context
  • younger children get confused as we as a society distinguish men and women by their appearance
  • best way is to determine their genitalia
  • 40% of children between the age of 3-5 were able to show gender constancy if shown an image of a naked person (questionable ethics)
  • the typical way to test gender constancy may misrepresent what younger children actually know
79
Q

PEEL for degree of constancy - Kohlberg

A
  • limitation
  • different researchers have proposed different degrees of gender constancy
  • Martin = praised Kohlberg for recognising children’s understanding of their own and others gender guides their thoughts and behaviours
  • exactly how and when this understanding effects children’s behaviour is unclear
  • may be different degrees of gender constancy
    • initial degree = orient children to the importance of gender (<6)
    • second degree = heighten children’s responsiveness to gender norms
  • suggests that acquiring constancy may be more gradual that originally though
80
Q

What are the different explanations of gender development

A
  • Kohlberg’s theory
  • gender schema theory
  • psychodynamic
  • social learning
81
Q

What are the effects of gender schemas after gender identity

A
  • child will begin to search their environment for information that encourages the development of gender schemas
  • contradicting Kohlberg’s theory that this only happens after gender constancy
82
Q

Who proposed the gender schema theory

A

Martin and Halverson

83
Q

How do gender schemas determine behaviour

A
  • likely to be formed around stereotypes
  • provide a framework for themselves
  • children are likely to misremember or disregard behaviours that do not match their existing schema
84
Q

How do gender schemas effect information about their in groups

A
  • pay more attention to information relevant to their gender identity
  • dont develop schemas for both genders until later on
85
Q

What is an in group in gender

A

Their own gender

86
Q

Evaluation points for gender schema theory

A
  • research support
  • earlier gender identity
    • COUNTERPOINT
  • cultural differences
87
Q

PEEL for research support - GST

A
  • strength
  • key principles are supported by evidence
  • M+H: children under the age of 6 are more likely to remember photos of stereotypically gender appropriate behaviours
    • girls: washing dishes
  • over gender inappropriate behaviours
    • girls: fixing a car
  • when tested after a week later
  • tended to change the gender of the person to make it gender appropriate
  • supports GST
  • predicts that children under the age of 6 will do this
88
Q

PEEL for earlier gender identity - GST

A
  • limitation
  • gender identity probably develops earlier than suggested
  • Zosuls: longitudinal study with 82 children
  • looked at the onset of gender identity
  • twice weekly reports from mothers on their child’s language development between 9-21 months and videotaping
  • how and when the children labelled themselves as a boy or girl was measured
  • at 19 months (when the child began to communicate)
  • suggests children have gender identity before but are unable to communicate it
  • M+H have underestimated a child’s ability to label themselves

COUNTERPOINT
- may not be appropriate to argue specific ages
- ages are averages rather than absolutes
- children may move through stages quicker or slower than others
- the sequence of development is more important
- Zosuls findings are not a fundamental criticism

89
Q

PEEL for cultural differences - GST

A
  • strength
  • can account for cultural differences
  • Cherry: gender schemas also account for culturally appropriate gender behaviours
  • traditional cultures will raise children with the same schemas
  • M+H theory can explain how gender schemas are transmitted between members of a society
  • contrasts with psychodynamic theories = unconscious biological urges
90
Q

What are the 5 psychosexual stages

A
  • oral
  • anal
  • phallic
  • latent
  • genital
91
Q

What are the two complexes in the psychodynamic theory

A
  • Oedipus = boys
  • Electra = girls
92
Q

What is the Oedipus complex

A
  • phallic stage
  • investors feelings towards mother
  • jealous of father
  • castration anxiety
  • resolved = gives up his love for mother, identifies with father
93
Q

What is the electra complex

A
  • phallic stage
  • penis envy
  • competition with mother for fathers love
  • double resentment towards mother
    - love rival for father
    - mother is blamed for having no penis
  • overtime substitute want for a penis with the desire to have a baby
  • identify with the mother
94
Q

What is identification - gender

A

Desire to be associated with a particular person or group
- they possess certain desirable characteristics

95
Q

What is internalisation - gender

A

An individual adopts the attitudes and or behaviours of another

96
Q

Who did Freud bas the Oedipus complex of

A

Little Hans

97
Q

Who was little Hans

A
  • 5 year old boy
  • fear of being bitten by a horse
  • fear disappeared after the age of 6
98
Q

Interpretations for little Han’s fear

A

Blinkers = dad had glasses
Beard = dad had a beard
Horse = used to play horses with dad
Being bitten = fear of castration

99
Q

Why did Freud say little Hans was scared of horses

A

Transferred his fear of his father via displacement
- unconscious defence mechanism

100
Q

Evaluation points for psychodynamic explanation of gender

A
  • Oedipus complex
    • COUNTERPOINT
  • female development
  • pseudoscientific
101
Q

What influences does the SLT draw attention to in gender development

A
  • environment
  • significant people in their lives
  • culture
  • media
102
Q

When is direct reinforcement likely to take place

A

When demonstrating stereotypically gender appropriate behaviours
Boys = active, assertive, engage in rough play
Girls = passive, gentlemen staying close to parents

103
Q

What is differential reinforcement

A

The way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviours
- how a child learns their gender identity

104
Q

Is a child more or less likely to repeat a behaviour that has been reinforced

A

More

105
Q

What is vicarious (indirect) reinforcement

A

When you look at the consequences of others actions and choose what to do next depending on that

106
Q

Examples of vicarious reinforcement in gender

A
  • girl sees mother being complemented for looking pretty with makeup on = favorable
  • boy sees another boy being teased for acting feminine = unfavourable
107
Q

What is identification - SLT of gender development

A

The process whereby a child attaches themself to a person who is seen to be ‘like me’ or a person who ‘I want to be’
- role models

108
Q

What do role models tend to be

A
  • attractive
  • high status
  • same gender as the child
109
Q

What is modelling

A

Role model = demonstrating behaviours that may be imitated
Observer = learning from the role models examples

110
Q

What are the 4 mediation processes central to the learning of gender behaviours

A
  • attention
  • retention
  • motivation
  • motor reproduction
111
Q

Evaluation points for SLT of gender development

A
  • research support
    • COUNTERPOINT
  • cultural changes
  • no developmental sequence
112
Q

PEEL for research support - SLT gender

A
  • strength
  • key principles are supported by evidence
  • smith + Lloyd = babies aged 4-6 months
  • dressed half the time in boys clothes and half the time in girls
  • when observed with adults:
    • boys = hammers, adventurous, active
    • girls = doll, pretty, passive
  • gender development is stamped at an early age through differential reinforcement

COUNTERPOINT
- differential reinforcement may not be the cause of gender differences
- may just be responding to innate gender differences that are already there
- boys may be more active anyway = hormones
- SLT is only aplicable to how children gain gender retaliated behaviours

113
Q

PEEL for cultual changes - SLT gender

A
  • strength
  • can explain cultural differences in stereotypical gender appropriate behaviours
  • no change in humans basic biology
  • shift in mindset can be explained by SLT
  • new forms of gender behaviours are more likely to be reinforced and not punished
  • SLT is able to explain cultural changes
114
Q

PEEL for no developmental sequence - SLT gender

A
  • limitation
  • doesn’t provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age
  • general implications of SLT are that gender behaviours can occur at any age
  • illogical that children of 10 learn the same as 7 year olds
  • conflicts with Kohlberg: children dont become active in their gender development until gender constancy
  • influence of age and maturity is not a factor considered in SLT
115
Q

What can we say about gender roles that are consistent between different cultures

A

They’re innate

116
Q

What can we say about gender roles that are culturally specific

A

The influence of shared norms and socialisation is decisive
- SLT

117
Q

What did Mead find in here study on cultural differences

A

Nurture
- Arapesh were gentle and responsive (femininity)
- Mundugumor were aggressive and hostile (masculinity)
- Tchambuli women were dominant and organised village life, men were passive and decorative (opposite gender roles)

118
Q

What does Mead’s study suggest - gender roles

A

Many not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender
- gender roles are culturally determined
- extent to which innate behaviours are expressed is a result of cultural norms

119
Q

What did Buss find on his study for cultural similarities

A

Nature
- consistent patterns of mate preferences in 37 countries across all continents
- women sought men who could offer wealth and resources
- men looked for youth and physical attractiveness

120
Q

What did Munroe and Munroe find in their study on cultural similarities

A

In most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines
- men = breadwinners
- women = nurtures

121
Q

Evaluation points for culture and gender roles

A
  • research support
  • Mead’s research
122
Q

PEEL for research support - culture and gender roles

A
  • strength
  • influence of culture on changing gender roles is supported by evidence
  • Hofstede = in industrialised cultures
  • changing status and expectations for women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace, away from the domestic sphere
  • breakdown of traditional stereotypes
  • tradition societies women still occupy the role of house maker
  • due to social, cultural and religious pressures
  • gender roles are determined by cultural context
123
Q

PEEL for Mead’s research - culture and gender roles

A
  • limitation
  • since been criticised
  • accused of making generalisations based on a short period of study
  • Freeman = follow up study in Papúa New Guinea
  • Mead had been misled by some of her pps
  • her preconceptions would have influenced her reading
  • example of observer bias and ethnocentrism
  • interpretations may not have been objective and questions her conclusions drawn
124
Q

What rigid stereotypes do media provide

A

Men = independent, ambitious, advice givers
Women = dependant, unambiguous, advice seekers
Bussey + Bandura

125
Q

What study did Farnham + Farragher conduct

A

TV shows
- men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional context
- women were seen in familial roles within domestic settings
- media may play a role in reinforcing social sterotypes

126
Q

What does the media enable young children to do

A

Show that they are capable of carrying out such behaviours in the future
- self efficacy

127
Q

What study did Mitra et al conduct

A
  • analysed the attitudes of people who watch a TV show aimed to challenge gender stereotypes
  • detective drama with 78 episodes
  • girls who watched the show were more likely to see themselves as working outside the home than non-viewers
  • self efficacy had changed as a result of media influence
128
Q

Evaluation points for media and gender roles

A
  • cultivation theory
  • passive recipients
129
Q

PEEL for cultivation theory - media and gender roles

A
  • strength
  • research into media influence has a theoretical basis
  • the more time people spend in the media world. The more likely they are to believe that it reflects social reality
  • Bond + Drogos = + correlation between time spent watching Jersey Shore and permissive attitudes towards casual sex
  • still true when researchers controlled the influence of factors like sexual attitudes, parental attitudes and religious beliefs
  • media ‘cultivates’ perception of reality and affects gender behaviour
130
Q

PEEL for passive recipients - media and gender roles

A
  • limitation
  • may not be a causal relationship
  • Durkin = even very young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages
  • norms within a child’s family may be a bigger determinant
  • if media matches with the family’s norms than the behaviour is likely to be reinforced
  • if not the representations are likely to be rejected
  • media influences are secondary to others
131
Q

What are the biological explanations for gender dysphoria

A
  • brain sex theory
  • genetic factors
132
Q

What is the brain sex theory

A
  • basis in brain structure
  • BED NUCLEUS OF THE STRIA TERMINALIS (BNST)
  • involved in emotional responses
  • larger in men than women
  • female sized in transgender females
133
Q

What is the BNST involved in

A

Emotional responses
- sexual behaviours in rats

134
Q

That does the brain sex theory suggest about people with gender dysphoria

A

They have the BNST size of the gender they identify with
- not with the size of their biological sex
- matches with the report of transgender people that they feel that they were born into the wrong sex

135
Q

What are the genetic factors in gender dysphoria

A

Coolidge et al
- 157 twin pairs: 96 MZ, 61 DZ
- 62% of the variance could be accounted for by genetic factors
- strong heritable component

Heylens et al
- compared 23 MZ and 21 DZ twins
- one was diagnosed with gender dysphoria
- 39% of MZ twins were concordant
- 0% of DZ twins were concordant
- indicates a role for genetic factors in the development of gender dysphoria

136
Q

Evaluation points for biological explanations of gender dysphoria

A
  • contradictory evidence
  • other brain differences
137
Q

PEEL for contradictory evident - biological explanations of gender dysphoria

A
  • limitation
  • central claims of brain sex theory have been challenged
  • Hulshoff = changes in transgender individuals brains using MRI scans taken during hormone treatement
  • size of BNST changed significantly over that period
  • Kruijver + Zhou = BNST was examined post-morgen
  • after transgender individuals had received hormone treatment
  • differences in the BNST may have been due to hormone therapy
  • not the cause of gender dysphoria
138
Q

PEEL for other brain differences - biological explanations for gender dysphoria

A
  • strength
  • other brain differences associated with gender dysphoria
  • Rametti = studied white matter in the brain
  • analysed the brains of both male and female transgender pps
  • before they began hormone treatement
  • the amount and distribution of while matter better corresponded with the gender the individuals identified with. Not their sex
  • early differences in the brains of transgender individuals
139
Q

What are the social explorations of gender dysphoria

A
  • social constructionism
  • psychoanalytic theory
140
Q

What is social constructionism

A
  • gender identity does not reflect underlying biological differences between people
  • concepts were invented by societies
141
Q

Social constructionism in relation to gender dysphoria

A
  • confusion arises because society forces people to be either a man or women
  • not a pathological condition but a social phenomenon
142
Q

Study done into social constructionism

A

McClintock
- individuals with a genetic condition in the Sambia of New Guinea
- biological men are categorised as female at birth
- have a labia and clitoris
- due to an increase of testosterone at puberty
- testes drop, clitoris enlarges into a penis
- since mixing with other cultures these individuals are said to have a pathological form of gender dysphoria

143
Q

What is the psychoanalytic theory of gender dysphoria

A

Ovesey + Person
- the social relationships within the family are the cause of gender dysphoria
- boys = extreme separation anxiety before gender identity
- fantasises a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety
- boy then adopts the women’s gender identity

Stroller
- interviews
- GD biological males displayed close relationships with their mother
- strong female identification
- conflicted gender identity

144
Q

Evaluation points for social explanations of gender dysphoria

A
  • social constructionism
  • psychoanalytic theory
145
Q

PEEL for social constructionism - gender dysphoria

A
  • strength
  • not all cultures have two genders
  • Samoa
  • challenge to just male and female classification
  • people starting to identify as non-binary
  • shows society is catching up
  • gender is best seen as a social construct than a biological fact
146
Q

PEEL for psychoanalytic theory - gender dysphoria

A
  • limitation
  • issues with this theory
  • Ovesey + Person’s study doesn’t account for gender dysphoria in biblical females
  • only applied to transgender females
  • Rekers = gender dysphoria in males is more likely due to the absence of the father
  • rather than the fear of separation from the mother
  • doesn’t provide a comprehensive account

A-Level Psychology (11 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions