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A-Level Psychology > Approaches > Flashcards

Approaches Flashcards

1
Q

What is introspection

A

The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations

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2
Q

What is psychology

A

The scientific study of the mind, behaviour and experience

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3
Q

What is the definition of science

A

A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws

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4
Q

What is the behaviourist approach

A

A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning

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5
Q

What is classical conditioning

A

Learning by association
- occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together
- unconditioned stimulus and a new neutral stimulus
- the neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditional stimulus alone

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6
Q

What is operant conditioning

A

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences.
- possible consequences of behaviour include reinforcement (positive or negative) and punishment

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7
Q

what is reinforcement

A

A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated
- can be positive and negative

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8
Q

What is the social learning theory

A

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors

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9
Q

What is imitation

A

Copying the behaviour of others

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10
Q

What is identification

A

When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.

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11
Q

What is modelling

A

From the observers perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model
From the model’s perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated bu an observer

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12
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement

A

Reinforcement which is not directly experienced by occurs through observing someone else being reinforces for a behaviour
This is a key factor of imitation.

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13
Q

What is meditational processes

A

Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response

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14
Q

What are the meditational processes

A

Attention - the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
Retention - how well the behaviour is remembered
Motor reproduction - the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
Motivation - the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded to punished

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15
Q

What is the cognitive approach

A

The term ‘cognitive’ has come to mean ‘mental processes’, so this approach is focused on how our mental processes affect behaviour

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16
Q

What are internal mental processes

A

‘Private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response

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17
Q

What is a schema

A

A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing
- they are developed from experiences

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18
Q

What is inference

A

The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour

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19
Q

what is cognitive neuroscience

A

The scientific study of those biological structures that underpin cognitive processes

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20
Q

What is the biological approach

A

A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural functions

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21
Q

What are genes

A

They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism

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22
Q

What are biological structures

A

An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing

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23
Q

What is neurochemistry

A

Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning

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24
Q

What is a genotype

A

The particular set of genes that a person possesses

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25
What is a phenotype
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment
26
What is evolution
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
27
What is the psychodynamic approach
A perspective that describes the different forces, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind adn direct human behaviour and experience
28
What is the unconscious
The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which directs much of our behaviour
29
What is the ID
Pleasure principle - entirely unconscious - made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification
30
What is the EGO
Reality principle - balances the conflicting demands of the Id and Superego
31
What is the SuperEgo
Morality principle - the moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self - how we ought to be
32
What are defence mechanisms
Unconscious strategies that the Ego uses to manage the conflicts between the ID and SuperEgo
33
What are psychosexual stages
Five developmental stages that all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development
34
what are the 5 psychosexual stages
- oral - anal - phallic - latency - genital
35
What is humanistic psychology
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determinism
36
What are the assumptions of the behaviourist approach
- studying behaviour that can be observed and measured - John B. Watson rejected introspection - relies on lab studies - behaviour is learnt - two forms of learning: operant and classical conditioning
37
What is an example of classical conditioning
Pavlov’s dog - sound of bell = food - causes the dog to drool
38
What is an example of operant conditioning
Skinner’s box - pressing the button would give the animal food
39
What are the strengths of the behaviourist approach
Well-controlled research - measures observable behaviours - highly controlled settings - basic stimulus-response units remove extraneous variables - cause and effect relationships are established - scientific credibility Real world applications - operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems - reward appropriate behaviours with tokens - can be exchanged for rewards - has widespread applications
40
What are the limitations of the behaviourist approach
Counterpoint to well-controlled research - oversimplified the learning processes - ignores idea of free will - internal mental processes are vital Environmental determinism - sees all behaviours as conditioned by past conditioning experiences - past conditioning history determines our actions - ignores possible influence of free will - ignores the influence of conscious decision-making
41
What are the assumptions of the social learning theory
- people learn through observation and imitation of each other - learning occurs both directly (classical/operant conditioning) and indirectly - vicarious reinforcement - mediational processes - identification
42
What is an example of research done for SLT
Bandura’s bobo dolls - children would watch an adult with a Bobo doll - they would imitate this behaviour - if they were violent so were the children - more likely to copy same gender as themselves
43
Strengths of SLT
Cognitive factors - recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning - neither CC or OC can give an adequate account of learning - humans store information about how others behaviour and make judgements from it - a more comprehensive explanation of human learning Real world application - can explain cultural differences in behaviour - SLT principles (reinforcement, modelling, imitiation) account for how children learnt from others - social norms are transmitted through particular societies - increases the value of SLT
44
Weaknesses of SLT
Counterpoint to cognitive factors - makes too little influence to the biological factors of learning - learning itself is determined by the environment - recent research says observational learning may be a result of mirror neurons in the brain - allow us to empathise with and imitate other people - biological influences are under emphasised in SLT Contrived lab studies - all evidence is gathered through lab studies - this can result in demand characteristics - the children were acting in the way they were expected to (Bobo dolls) - research tells us little about how children learn aggression in everyday life
45
What are the assumptions of the cognitive approach
- internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically - investigates areas of human behaviour that were neglected by behaviourists (memory, perception, thinking) - cognitive psychologists make these observations indirectly through inferences - schemas - theoretical and computer models
46
Strengths of cognitive approach
Scientific methods - highly controlled and rigorous methods of study - allows researchers to make inferences - the study of the mind has credible scientific basis Real-world applications - most dominant approach - applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts - AI and robots - advances that may revolutionise how we live in the future - applied to treatment of depression - improving reliability of eye witness testimonies
47
Weaknesses of the cognitive approach
Counterpoint to scientific methods - cognitive psychology relies on the inference of mental processes - can suffer from being too abstract and theoretical in nature - research is often carried out using artificial stimuli - may not represent everyday life - may lack external validity Machine reductionism - similarities between the human mind and computers - computer analogy has been criticised - ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation - human memory is effected by emotional factors - machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach
48
What are the assumptions of the biological approach
- everything psychological is at first biological - must look at the biological structures and processes - the mind lives in the brain (thoughts, feelings, behaviours have a physical basis) - neurochemical/genetic basis of behaviour - genotypes and phenotypes - evolution and behaviour
49
What are the neurochemical basis of behaviour
Neurotransmitters - serotonin in OCD - dopamine in schizophrenia
50
What are the genetic basis of behaviour
Behaviours are inherited - concordance rate - compare monozygotic and dizygotic twins
51
What are the strengths of the biological approach
Real world application - use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders - antidepressant drugs increase the neurotransmitter serotonin at synapses in the brain - allows those with depression to better manage it Scientific methods - use a range of precise and highly objective methods - scanning techniques: fMRIs and EEGs - much of the biological approach is bases on objective and reliable data
52
Weaknesses of the biological approach
Counterpoint to real world applications - antidepressants do not work for everyone - Andrea Cipriani tested 21 antidepressants and found a large variety of effectiveness - shows brain chemistry alone does not account for all cases of diseases like depression Biological determinism - believes behaviour is governed by internal genetic causes over which we have no control - genotypes however are heavily influences by the environment - biological view is often too simplistic - ignores any mediating effects of the environment
53
What are the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
- role of the unconscious - suppressing memories - structure of personality (Id, Ego, Superego) - psychosexual stages (Oral, Anal, Phylis, Latency, Genital) - defence mechanisms
54
What are the psychosexual stages
- 5 stages children undergo in development - child must resolve one to more onto the next stage - unresolved conflicts can lead to fixations
55
What is the oral stage of psychosexual stages
Focuses of pleasure is the mouth - mother’s breast is the object of desires
56
What is the anal stage of the psychosexual stages
Focus of pleasure is the anus - child gains pleasure from withholding or expelling faeces
57
What is the phallic stage of the psychosexual stages
Focus of pleasure in the genital area
58
What is the latency stage of the psychosexual stages
Earlier conflicts are repressed
59
What is the genital stage of the psychosexual stages
Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
60
Strengths of the psychodynamic approach
Real world application - Freud introduces psychoanalysis as a form of therapy - first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically - designed to access the unconscious - brings their repressed emotions into their unconscious - counselling - value of the psychodynamic approach in creating a new approach to treatment Explanatory power - used to explain a wide range of phenomena including personality development, moral development and gender identity - draws attention to the connections between experiences in childhood and later development - has had a positive impact on psychology
61
Weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach
Counterpoint to real world application - inappropriate and even harmful for more serious mental disorders (schizophrenia) - these patients have lost their grip on reality - cannot articulate their though in the way that is required by psychoanalysis - may not apply to all mental disorders Untestable concepts - does not meet the scientific criteria of falsification - not open to empirical testing - they occur at an unconscious level - difficult/impossible to test - subjective results - Freud’s theory was pseudoscience (not a real science) and established fact
62
Assumptions of the humanistic approach
- self determining and have free will - Maslow’s hierarchy of needs - self actualisation - the self, congruence and conditions of worth
63
What are the levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- physiological needs - safety and security - love and belonging - self esteem - self actualisation
64
What are the two different types of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- deficiency needs - growth needs
65
Strengths of humanistic approach
Not reductionist - rejects attempts to break behaviour into smaller components - advocate holism (looking at the whole person) - may have more validity Positive approach - bringing the person back into psychology - prompting a positive image of the human - offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative to other approaches
66
Weaknesses to the humanistic approach
Counterpoint to not reductionist - reduction is approaches can be more scientific - experiments reduce behaviour into the IV and DV - few concepts that can be broken down and measured - short on empirical evidence Cultural differences - many concepts are better applied to more individualist countries (US) - countries with collectivist tendencies emphasis the needs of the group and interdependence - approach does not apply universally
67
What is congruence
When someone’s ideal self and actual self are consistent with each other

A-Level Psychology (11 decks)

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