Medical Technology Test Flashcards
Heart Rate (Pulse)
a wave of blood flow that expands an artery created by a contraction of the heart
What is the heart rate assessed as?
beats per minute (BPM)
How is the heart rate counted?
counted for 15, 20, 30, or 60 seconds
Normal Heart Rate (adults)
Healthy Resting HR = 60 – 100 BPM
Where is the Radial Pulse sight located?
inside the wrist, near the thumb
Where is the Brachial Pulse sight located?
in the antecubital space of the arm (the bend of the elbow) in adults
Where is the Apical Pulse sight located?
ausculated with a stethoscope on the chest wall. The pulse is found at the apex of the heart
Device used to measure heart rate?
stethoscope
Electrocardiograph (ECG/EKG)
an electrocardiograph record the electrical activity of your heart
P Wave
arterial depolarization (atrial contraction)
QRS Wave
depolarization of ventricles (ventricular contraction)
T Wave
repolarization or recovery of the ventricles
Blood Pressure (BP)
the pressure or tension exerted by the circulating volume of blood on the arterial walls
Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP)
the higher number; represents the pressure exerted on the arteries during the contraction phase of the heartbeat
Diastolic Blood Pressure (DBP)
the second number; represents the resting pressure on the arteries as the heart relaxes between contractions
Pulse Pressure
Difference between the systolic and diastolic; 40 is normal and healthy
What is the normal range for blood pressure?
120/80 mmHg
Device used for measuring blood pressure?
sphygomomanometer or a BP cuff
The most common site for reading BP?
Brachial artery: taken on the upper arm
Radial Artery (BP Site)
taken on the lower arm; possible site for infants or clients who have ver large upper arms
Popliteal Artery (BP Site)
taken on the thigh
Dorsalis Pedis and Posterior Tibial (BP Site)
taken on the lower leg
Hypertension
a condition that can be caused by high blood pressure
Hypotension
a condition that can be caused by low blood pressure
Respiratory Rate
number of breaths per minute
1 breath = 1 inhalation and 1 exhalation
Normal range for respiration rate
12 – 20 breaths per minute
Hyperventilation
an increased respiratory rate
Hypoventilation
a decrease in respiratory rate and depth
Tidal Volume (TV)
500 mL or 0.5 L
normal volume moved in or out of the lungs during quiet (resting) breathing
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
2900 mL or 2.9 L
inhaling deeply to increase lung volume
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
1400 mL or 1.4 L
increasing expiration by contracting our thoracic and abdominal muscles
Vital Capacity (VC)
the total of TV + IRV + ERV
it is called vital capacity because it is vital for life, and the more air you can move the better off you are
Total Lung Capacity
6000 mL or 6 L
VC + RV
the amount of air in the lungs after a deep inhalation
Spirogram
term that depicts a graph of lung capacities
Device used to measure lung capacities
respirometer
Spirometry
a method of assessing lung function by measuring the volume and speed flow of air in and out of the lungs
Pulmonary Function Test (PFT)
Spirometer
device used to perform spirometry
Respiratory Disease Classifications
Obstructive Lung Disease
Restrictive Lung Disease
Obstructive Lung Disease
conditions that makes it hard to exhale all the air in the lungs
Obstructive Lung Disease Examples
- COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)
- Emphysema
- Asthma
- Cystic Fibrosis
Restrictive Lung Disease
conditions that makes it difficult to fully expand the lungs with air due to lung stiffness or muscle weakness
Restrictive Lung Disease Examples
- ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis)
- Muscular dystrophy
- Scoliosis
- Interstitial Disease (pulmonary fibrosis)
Homeostasis
the condition of the body maintaining a “steady state” where the internal environment within the body remains stable despite the influence of external factors
Negative Feedback System
works by reducing or eliminating the stimulus that is causing the change
A negative feedback system controls what?
blood sugar levels, temperature, and blood pH level
Positive Feedback System
enhances the effect of the stimulus pushing it further away from its normal range
A positive feedback system is used for what?
to produce a desired result or achieve a final goal
Example: childbirth and lactation
Thermoregulation
the ability to maintain the internal body temperature so that cells can function properly
Normal range for body temperature
37ºC or 98.6ºF
Body Temperature
a measure of your body’s ability to make and get rid of heat
Device used to measure body temperature
electronic thermometers
glass thermometers
Oral Temperature Site
within the mouth or under the tongue
Axillary Temperature Site
in the armpit
Tympanic Temperature Site
in the ear canal
Rectal Temperature Site
through the anus, in the rectum
Tachycardia
the pulse is faster than 100 BPM
Tachycardia may result from what?
shock, hemorrhage, exercise, fever, acute pain, and drugs
Symptoms of Tachycardia
dizziness, fainting, chest pain, light headedness, shortness of breath, heart palpitations, rapid pulse rate
Bradycardia
the pulse is slower than 60 BPM
Bradycardia may result from what?
unrelieved severe pain, drugs, resting, and hearth blockage
Symptoms of Bradycardia
dizziness, fainting or near-fainting, shortness of breath, chest pains, easily tiring during physical activity, fatigue, weakness, confusion, memory problems
What does hypertension cause?
- can lead to stroke by damaging and weakening the brain’s blood vessels
- can weaken the heart leading to congestive heart failure
What does hypotension cause?
- light headedness, dizziness, weakness or fainting
Hyperthermia
an elevated body temperature due to failed thermoregulation ( > 40ºC or 104ºF)
Causes of Hyperthermia
- prolonged exposure to heat (heat stroke)
- adverse reaction to drugs
Symptoms of Hyperthermia
- hot, dry skin
- nausea
- vomiting
- headaches
- low BP
- fainting
Hypothermia
when the body loses heat faster than it can produce heat, causing a dangerously low body temperature ( < 35ºC or 95ºF)
Causes of Hypothermia
- prolonged exposure to cold
- major trauma
- severe cases of anorexia nervosa
Symptoms of Hypothermia
- shivering
- mental confusion
- difficulty speaking
- stumbling
- amnesia
- inability to use hands
- increase in BP
Factors that affect Heart Rate
- exercise
- illness
- injury
- emotions
Factors that affect Blood Pressure
- cardiovascular disorders
- neurological conditions
- kidney and urological disorders
(exercise, stress, diet, medications, alcohol, and drugs can affect a reading)
Factors that affect Respiration Rate
age (increases with age)
Factors that affect Temperature
- time of day
- allergic reaction
- illness
- stress
- exposure to heat or cold
- exercise
- menstrual cycle
Use of Ultrasound
use of sound above human hearing range to image body structures, including soft tissues
- view the uterus and fetus during pregnancy
- evaluate blood flow
- examine lumps within soft tissue (organs)
- guide a needle for biopsy or tumor treatment)
Function of Ultrasound
an ultrasound transducer (probe) is a device that produced sound waves that bounce off body tissues and make echos. The transducer also receives the echoes and sends them to a computer that uses them to create an image called a sonogram
Function of X-rays
high energy electromagnetic waves that pass through soft tissue but are absorbed by dense tissue
Use of X-rays
- dental x-rays
- used to view breakages or fractures of bones
- can be used to see soft tissues with the help of stains
Function of CAT/CT Scans
Computerized Axial Tomography Scan
an x-ray machine that rotates around the patient taking hundreds of individual pictures from many angles
computer re-assembles the picture into a 3D image, allowing for organs to be viewed section-by-section
Use of CAT/CT Scans
- examine internal and bone injuries
- diagnose spinal problems and skeletal injuries
- detect cancers and determine the extent of tumours
Function of Nuclear Medicine
measures radiation emitted from within the body and provides information about the function of the organ, not just its structure
uses radioisotopes (unstable atoms) that are injected into the target organ for imaging. large amounts of isotopes collect at a site of damage “lighting” it up
Use of Nuclear Medicine
- diagnose bone, heart or other organ problems
- radioactive materials are used to kill cancerous tissue, shrink a tumor or reduce pain
Function of PET Scans (Positron Emission Tomography)
illustrates how the organs/tissues inside your body are really functioning
Use of PET Scans
detect:
- cancer
- heart problems
- brain disorders
- other central nervous system disorders
- blood flow
- oxygen use
- glucose metabolism
- cellular level metabolic changes occurring in an organ or tissues
Function of MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Scans
uses magnetic and radio waves to produce images of almost all the different types of tissues in the body
Use of MRI’s
- finding tumors in the brain
- finding abnormal tissue
- finding brain bleeds
- takes pictures of heart defects
- takes pictures of joints, spine and sometimes soft tissue (organs)
Con of X-rays
can be damaging to our DNA
Con of CAT/CT Scans
- full body scans are still not routinely done due to high incidence of “incidentalomas”, not real issues that show up as issues on the scan
- known to increase chances of cancer
How do PET Scans work?
the PET machine detects and records the energy given off by the radiotracer that is injected into an arm vein and a computer sonverts this energy into 3D pictures
Pros of PET Scans
- a physician can look at cross-sectional images of the body organ from any angle
- can detect cellular metabolic changes occurring in an organ and tissue unlike a CT or MRI
How do MRI’s work
radio waves, 10,000-30,000x stronger than the magnetic field of the earth, are sent through the body, forcing the body’s atoms’ nuclei into a different position, and send out radio waves of their own. The scanner picks up these signals and a computer turns them into a picture
Pros of MRI’s
no exposure to x-rays or any other damaging forms of radiation
Organ Transplant
a surgical procedure in which a failing or damages organ in the human body is removed and replaced with a functioning one
Autograft
a transplant of tissue from one to oneself
Ex. skin grafts, blood, stem cells
Allograft
a transplant between 2 genetically non-identical members of the same species
Complications of an Allograft
requires immunosuppressants to prevent an autoimmune response but these drugs make the body vulnerable to pathogens
Isograft
(a sub-category of allografts)
involves a transplant from a donor to a genetically identical recipient (ex. identical twins)
- does not trigger an immune response
Xenograft and Xenotransplantation
a transplant from one species to another
ex. porcine (pig) heart valve transplants
Organ Harvesting
Organs are taken from living or deceased individuals without their consent and sold for transplantation
Transplant Tourism
wealthy individuals go to poorer nations and buy organs for transplantation
Deceased (Cadaveric Organ Donation) Organ Donors
people who have been declared brain-dead and whose organs are kept viable by ventilators or other mechanical mechanism until they can be excised for transplantation
Living Organ Donors
the donor remains alive and donates a renewable tissue, cell or fluid or donates an organ (primarily single kidney donation, partial donation of liver, lung lobe)
Complications with Organ Donations
- increased risk of the non-compatibility
- rejection
- disease carried in the tissue
Role of Blood
- transports nutrients, respiratory gases, hormones, and wastes
- has a role in thermoregulation
- defends against infection
- ability to form clots and prevents blood loss
Percentage of the Liquid Phase/ Plasma in Blood
Plasma consists of what?
55%
water, proteins, sugars, vitamins, minerals, and waste products
Percentage of the Solid Phase in Blood
Consists of what?
45%
erythrocytes (RBC’s), leukocytes (WBC’s), and thrombocytes (platelets)
Erythrocytes:
- percentage
- function
- protein
- nucleus?
- 45% of the total blood volume
- transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
- hemoglobin
- no nucleus
Leukocytes:
- percentage
- function
- protein
- nucleus?
- less than 1% of the total blood volume
- defend the body from foreign invaders
- formin
- has a nucleus
Thrombocytes:
- percentage
- function
- nucleus
- less than 1% of the total blood volume
- clot blood when blood vessels become damaged ( forms platelet plugs; releases chemicals necessary for blood clotting)
- no nucleus
Leukocytes are classified by? What are the 2 different classifications?
Classified by the presence of granules
- Granulocytes
- Agranulocytes
Granulocytes
irregularly shapes WBC with several lobes and characterized by the PRESENCE of granules in their cytoplasm that are filled with enzymes and antimicrobial chemicals
What are the 3 types of Granulocytes?
- Basophils
- Eosinophils
- Neutrophils
Basophils
percentage of WBC concentration
1%
release histamines and are involves in inflammatory responses
Eosinophils
percentage of WBC concentration
4%
releases chemicals that reduce inflammation; attacks certain worm parasites
–––> phagocytosis at inflammatory sites
Neutrophils
percentage of WBC concentration
65%
immune defense; engulf pathogens and debris in damaged or infected tissue
–––>phagocytizes microorganisms and other substances
Agranulocytes
have compact nuclei and are characterized by the ABSENCE of granules in their cytoplasm
What are the 2 types of Agranulocytes?
- Monocytes
2. Lymphocytes
Monocytes
percentage of WBC concentration
5%
phagocytic cell in the blood; leaves the blood and becomes a macrophage, which phagocytizes bacteria, dead cells, cell fragments and other debris within tissues
What do Monocytes do for T cells?
they keep pieces of the pathogen so that the pathogens can be recognized again and killed
(think of a vaccine)
Lymphocytes
percentage of WBC concentration
23%
produces antibodies and other chemicals responsible for destroying microorganisms; regulate the immune system
What are the 2 types of Lymphocytes?
- T Cells
2. B Cells
T Cells
determine the specificity of immune response to antigens (foreign substances) in the body
B Cells
produce antibodies that bind to invading pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins to enable their destruction
What are the 3 types of T Cells?
- Helper T Cells (CD4+)
- Natural Killer Cells (NK)
- Cytotoxic T Cells
Helper T Cells
initiate the immune response
Natural Killer Cells
are able to kill cells of the body that are infected by a virus as well as tumor cells. Part of the INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM, which means they are always turned on
Cytotoxic T Cells
are able to kill cells of the body that are infected by a virus as well as tumor cells (induce apoptosis in cells). Part of the ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSE, which means they are only switched on to deal with persistent viruses
Agglutinogens (Antigens)
a protein found on the surface of erythrocytes
Characteristics of Agglutinogens
- used to name blood type
- have a large, globular shape
Agglutinins (Antibodies)
a substance that recognizes and attacks foreign molecules. It causes particles to coagulate to form a thickened mass
Characteristics of Agglutinins
- found in the plasma
- develop after birth
- Y-shaped
Similarities between Agglutinoges and Agglutinins
- both are protein molecules
- components of blood, and related to immunity
Blood Stereotyping: Type A Antigen: Antibodies: Can donate to: Can receive from:
Antigen: A
Antibodies: Anti-B
Can donate to: A and AB
Can receive from: A and O
Blood Stereotyping: Type A Antigen: Antibodies in Cerum: Can donate to: Can receive from:
Antigen: A
Antibodies in Cerum: Anti-B
Can donate to: A and AB
Can receive from: A and O
Blood Stereotyping: Type B Antigen: Antibodies in Cerum: Can donate to: Can receive from:
Antigen: B
Antibodies in Cerum: Anti-A
Can donate to: B and AB
Can receive from: B and O
Blood Stereotyping: Type O Antigen: Antibodies in Cerum: Can donate to: Can receive from:
Antigen: Neither A or B
Antibodies in Cerum: Both Anti-A and Anti-B
Can donate to: EVERYONE
Can receive from: O ONLY
Blood Stereotyping: Type AB Antigen: Antibodies in Cerum: Can donate to: Can receive from:
Antigen: Both A and B
Antibodies in Cerum: NONE
Can donate to: AB
Can receive from: EVERYONE
Agglutination
the clumping together of cells or particles
Rh is expresses as positive or negative
either you have it or you don’t
Where is the Rh factor found?
like other antigens, it is found on the surface of the red blood cells
Rh Compatibility
Rh+ is dominant
Rh– is negative
85% of people are Rh+
Rh+ blood types can only give blood to other Rh+ carriers
Rh– blood types can give blood to both Rh+ and Rh– carriers
Rh+ blood types can receive blood from both Rh+ and Rh– carriers
Rh– blood types can only receive blood from Rh– carriers
What happens when an Rh- woman has an Rh+ child with an Rh+ man?
cells from the baby enter the woman’s blood stream and cause her to produce antibodies to protect her from the Rh+ antigen.
this does not cause any problems in the first pregnancy. But in the second pregnancy, if the child is Rh+, the Rh antibodies can cross the placenta and attack the baby’s RBC’s.
This can lead to HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA; a condition in which RBC’s are destroyed faster than the body can replace them
What is the solution to an Rh+ pregnancy?
injections of an Rh IMMUNE GLOBULIN medicine can keep the body from making Rh antibodies, and helps prevent the problems of Rh incompatibility
