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Research > Measurements and Errors of measurement/Data source & Quality > Flashcards

Measurements and Errors of measurement/Data source & Quality Flashcards

1
Q

Defining who has the disease

A

PROBLEMS WITH INCIDENCE AND PREVALENCE MEASUREMENTS:

PROBLEMS WITH NUMERATORS

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2
Q

.Problems due to difficulties in diagnosis

A

Some Possible Sources of Error in Interview Surveys

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3
Q
  • participant may chose not to respond or alter his response

- responds to please the interviewer

A

Problems associated with the study participant

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4
Q
  • not recording or incorrect recording
  • incorrect questioning
  • biased by knowing the hypothesis being tested and may probe more intensively in one group than in another
A

Problems associated with the interviewer

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5
Q
  • Selective undercounting of certain groups e.g. Ethnic minority
  • Different studies use different definitions so comparison of results is difficult
  • For a rate of make sense, every one in the group represented by the denominator must have the potential to enter the group represented by the denominator. This is not that simple.

Example: Uterine cancer rates
Hysterectomy

A

PROBLEMS WITH DENOMINATORS

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6
Q

An index of the severity of a disease from both clinical and public health standpoints

A

Mortality

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7
Q

Can also be used as an index of the risk of disease

A

Mortality

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8
Q

Easier to obtain than incidence data for a given disease, however when a disease is mild and not fatal, it is not a good index for incidence

A

Mortality

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9
Q

2 conditions where mortality rate is a good reflection of incidence rate:

A

When case-fatality is high (i.e. untreated rabies)
When duration of disease is short (survival)
i.e Pancreatic cancer – where mortality is good surrogate for incidence

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10
Q

the disease or injury which initiated morbid events leading directly or indirectly to death → underlying cause

A

Cause of death

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11
Q

excludes information pertaining to the immediate cause of death, contributory causes, and those causes that intervene between underlying and immediate causes

A

Underlying cause of death

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12
Q

Is a true experiment in which patients are assigned randomly to a study category (treatment), and are then followed forward in time, and the outcome is assessed

A

RANDOMIZED CONTROL TRIAL (RCT)

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13
Q

meaning the sample members are allocated to treatment groups by chance alone so that the choice reduces the risk of possibly biasing factors

A

RANDOMIZED CONTROL TRIAL (RCT)

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14
Q
  • lack of representativeness

- “a process at any stage of inference tending to produce results that depart systematically from the true values”

A

BIAS

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15
Q

Occurs when two factors are associated with each other and the effect of one is confused with or distorted by the effect of the other

A

CONFOUNDING BIAS

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16
Q

are factors (exposures, interventions, treatments, etc) that explain or produce confounding

A

Confounder

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17
Q
  • Creates problems in statistical analysis

- Affects comparability of treatment and control groups

A

Problems with Sample Attrition

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18
Q

Treatment maybe so effective that patients believe themselves to have been cured and cease taking medications; successes disappear from treatment, leaving treatment appearing less effective than what it really is

A

Problems with Sample Attrition

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19
Q
  • Replacement of drop-outs not advisable

- Drop-out rates should be considered in sample size estimation

A

Problems with Sample Attrition

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20
Q

indicator of therapeutic usefulness and effectiveness and should be considered when drawing conclusions from trials

A

Drop-out data can be used

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21
Q

the extent to which a measurement or study reaches the correct conclusion.

A

VALIDITY

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22
Q

The degree to which a test is capable of measuring what it is intended to measure

A

VALIDITY

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23
Q

The degree to which the result of an observation are correct for the particular group studied

A

INTERNAL VALIDITY

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24
Q

determined by how well the design, data collection, and analyses are carried out and are threatened by all the biases, and random variation

A

INTERNAL VALIDITY

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25
Q

Extent to which the study’s results can be applied to those beyond the study sample

A

EXTERNAL VALIDITY (Generalizability)

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26
Q

Assuming that the results of the study are true, do they apply to my patients as well?

A

EXTERNAL VALIDITY (Generalizability)

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27
Q

expresses the validity of assuming that patients in a study are comparable with other patients

A

Generalizability

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28
Q

Due to differences or changes in the standardized diagnostic criteria

(i. e. diagnostic custom) used by most physicians
- example: Hypertension, Rheumatoid arthritis

A

THE OBSERVER

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29
Q

Due to differences or changes in the application of diagnostic criteria by individual clinician

example: rounding off quantitative measurements (BP), carelessness, or simple ignorance

A

THE OBSERVER

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30
Q

International Classification of Diseases, 8th revision – reported a 15% increase deaths due to IHD ICD 9th revision reported reduced number of death

A

THE SYSTEM used for codifying and classifying observations of the phenomena of interest

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31
Q

Errors due to behavioural responses

Example:

  • Recall bias
  • Response bias
  • Response-set bias (strongly agree; strongly disagree
A

THE SUBJECT being examined, interviewed or observed

32
Q

the interviewer tends to elicit a desired or expected response by wording a question in certain way

A

Experimenter bias

33
Q

the subject’s experience or knowledge that he is being observed or studied changes his behaviour or performance, and possibly certain physiologic functions – Placebo effect

A

Hawthorne effect

34
Q

Temporary elevation of BP due to anxiety

A

THE SUBJECT

35
Q

Errors due to mechanical failures or problems with equipment

A

THE INSTRUMENT used for making measurements or combining information

36
Q

Errors due to conceptual problems involving the availability or adequacy of specific tests

A

THE INSTRUMENT used for making measurements or combining information

37
Q

Errors due to analytic or scaling problems of combining from two or more items or tests to form an overall index or indicator of the factor (disease) of interest

Example: combining different scores from survey stems, clinical symptoms or lab tests to derive an index of depression

A

THE INSTRUMENT used for making measurements or combining information

38
Q
  • Human errors of data processing
  • encoding, key punching, data abstraction and transcription, improper use of computer software, and bugs and viruses in the software
A

THE DATA PROCESSING EFFORT

39
Q

the extent to which a measure produces the same result at different times for the same subjects

A

INTRA-OBSERVER RELIABILITY

40
Q
  • the extent to which a measure produces the same observation on each subject regardless of who makes the ob
A

INTER-OBSERVER RELIABILITY

41
Q
  • the extent to which all items or test making up a composite measure (index) reflect the same underlying construct
A

INTERNAL CONSISTENCY

42
Q

those obtained by the investigator to answer specific questions he has in mind

A

PRIMARY DATA

43
Q
  • interviews, PE, laboratory tests

- more expensive and more difficult to obtain but more accurate and up-to-date

A

PRIMARY DATA

44
Q
  • those that are actually gathered by other individuals/investigators
A

SECONDARY DATA

45
Q
  • already published reports or existing records from agencies or institutions
A

SECONDARY DATA

46
Q
  • more readily available but maybe incomplete
A

SECONDARY DATA

47
Q

may be difficult to access because of confidentiality of data

A

SECONDARY DATA

48
Q

Define the population at risk

Census statistics

A

DENOMINATOR DATA

49
Q
  • Define the events or conditions of concern

- Statistics from health, disease, birth, and death registries and surveys

A

NUMERATOR DATA

50
Q
  • Natality, mortality, marriages, divorces, adoptions

- Total births/deaths, deaths by specific cause, infant mortality, etc

A

DATA ON VITAL EVENTS

51
Q
  • Existence of disease based on abnormal PE and/or laboratory findings
  • Prevalence or incidence of specific diseases
A

DISEASE STATISTICS

52
Q

Hemoglobin, blood sugar levels, blood pressure

A

Data on physiologic &/or pathologic conditions

53
Q

Activities and performance of health agencies

A

Data on health resources and service

54
Q

. Number of households with sanitary water source; amount of pollution in the air; noise level

A

Statistics pertaining to the environment

55
Q

Total number of people in an area according to age, gender, urban

A

Demographic data

56
Q

. KAP of people regarding health practice

A

Socio-cultural data

57
Q

required to be registered within ____ days by birth attendant or the family or any person who knows the occurrence of the event, at the Local Civil Registry

A

Birth: 30 days

58
Q

Uses of Birth Certificate

A

1 To prove the fact of birth
-For proving parentage; for inheritance of properties;for settlement of insurance; for legal dependency; to establish identity; for tracing ancestry; for planning child health programs

2 To prove date of birth
- For entrance to school, automobile license; right to vote; for marriage; for entering civil service, social security benefits; settlement of pensions; enlistment to armed forces; issuance of professional licence; proof of legal age

3 To prove place of birth
-For issuance of passport, immigration and to establish citizenship

Patters of fertility
Population estimate – based on the knowledge of births, deaths, and migration
Population projection
Public Heath Programs

59
Q

Who can file the birth certificate?

A

Parents
Legal guardian
Midwife/ Physician
In case of a lost baby (foundling), the rescuer or founder

60
Q

Required by law to be registered by medical attendant, family, local health officer, or anybody who knows such event

A

Death

61
Q

Some aspects of person’s death are not reflected

A

circumstances of death

62
Q

It should be filed within _____ after the time of death

A

48 hours

63
Q

Uses of Death Cartificates

A

1 To prove the fact of death
- For lifetime insurance claims and for settlement of estates

2 To prove facts about the deceased for circumstances of death
- For access to or termination of government services such as health cards, pensions, etc

  • For medical, health research and for statistical purposes
  • To provide an ongoing mortality data resource for measuring health problems, guiding health programs, and evaluating health promotions and disease control activities
64
Q

Cause of Death

A

The disease or injury that started the physiological processes that led to the termination of life

65
Q

Disease or injury that led to the death

Ex: Pneumonia

A

Immediate Cause of Death

66
Q

Pertains to the sequelae or complications that gave rise to the immediate cause
Ex: Stroke

A

Antecedent Cause of Death

67
Q

> Root disease; other significant conditions contributing to death but not actually related to the immediate cause; most important of the three
Ex: Diabetes Mellitus

Example: A patient has diabetes mellitus. He then had a cerebrovascular accident and was hospitalized because of this. While in the hospital, he developed pneumonia and died.

A

Underlying Cause of Death

68
Q
  • Special records kept for special diseases, usually chronic, like cancers
  • Should contain all cases of the illness that occur in the catchment area
  • Contains pertinent information on the course of the illness, medications, etc
  • One look at the register will tell how many prevalent cases are there, how many have died or recovered
A

Disease Registers

69
Q

List of Notifiable Diseases by the DOH
Required by law to report to DOH
Attending physician

Maybe undernotified because of
> Ignorance of the law
> Non-caring attitude to report the case
> Not all sick people seek medical help

A

Disease Notifications

70
Q

Taken at regular interval of years provide complete enumeration of population’s profile

A

Census

71
Q

Sources of data in instances where the investigator need specific variables in specific scales of measurement

A

Surveys

72
Q

Is the data available not long after the date of occurrence of the event covered?

Data is not often submitted on time because:

a. Health worker has too much work
b. Too many forms to be filled up
c. Transportation and communication problems
A

TIMELINESS

73
Q

both completeness of coverage and completeness in accomplishing all the items in every form

Q: Does the data cover the entire geographic area and target population?

A

COMPLETENESS

74
Q

refers to how close the measurement of the data is to its true value

A

ACCURACY

75
Q

refers to the repeatability or consistency of the information

A

PRECISION

Research (10 decks)

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