MCAT Review Sheet Flashcards
what can cause denaturation
heat and solutes
myosin is a motor or structural protein?
motor
kinesin is a motor or structural protein?
motor
collagen is a motor or structural protein?
structural
actin is a motor or structural protein?
structural
dynein is a motor or structural protein?
motor
keratin is a motor or structural protein?
structural
elastin is a motor or structural protein?
structural
tubulin is a motor or structural protein?
structural
what do binding proteins do?
bind a specific substrate, either to sequester it in the body or hold its concentration at steady state
what do cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) do
bind cells to other cells or surfaces
what do antibodies target
antigens, which is a protein on the surface of a pathogen or toxin
ion channels
used for regulating ion flow into or out of a cell
ligases
responsible for joining two large biomolecules, often the same type
isomerases
catalyze the interconversion of isomers, including both constitutional and stereoisomers
lyases
catalyze cleavage without the addition of water and without transfer of electrons
the reverse reaction (synthesis) is usually more biologically important
hydrolases
catalyzes cleavage with the addition of water
oxidoreductases
catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions that involve the transfer of electrons
transferases
move a functional group from one molecule to another
do enzymes alter free energy or enthalpy
neither
what do enzymes do
lower activation energy
what are trioses
3 carbon sugars
what are tetroses
4 carbon sugars
what is the difference between paramagnetic and diamagnetic?
p: electrons are NOT paired; they react with magnetic field
d: electrons are paired; less likely to react with magnetic field
think: di=pair (like diastereomers)
what is nuclear binding energy
energy needed to disassemble or assemble a nucleus
in nuclear binding energy, what kind of charge is associated with disassemble and assemble?
D: +charge because it uses energy
A: -charge because it gives off energy
what happens in 1,4-B linkage?
H2O is always lost
if there is a lower energy transition state, does that mean it is less or more stable
more stable
what do catalyst at the end of the reaction do
they always go back to the original form
left brain vs right brain
left: logic, linguistic etc.
right: colorful and creative
what kind of bonds does cysteine have?
disulfide bond
what makes and breaks disulfide bonds
bonds are made by oxidation and broken by reduction
in ideal gas, what is the fixed molar volume
22.4L per mole
what is the specific heat capacity of water
4.2
what is the resting membrane potential?
-70
equation of power
power= force x velocity
when an impurity is introduced, what happens to the melting point?
decreases
in a graph, what does repolarization, hyperpolarization, and depolarization mean
depol: going up on the curve
repol: going down on the curve
hyperpol: the deep plunge beneath the dotted line
in D vs L amino acids, which goes right and left? think in terms of fischer projections
NH3+ goes left for L (L for left)
NH3+ goes right for D
in a fischer projection, where is the position of the R and what about the carboxylic acid?
carboxylic is on top and R on bottom
think:R on bottom(bottom=rear end)
what is the difference between nucleosides and nucleotides
sides: contain 5 carbon sugar bound to a nitrogenous base
tides: nucleosides with 1-3 phosphate groups
what is the watson-crick model
DNA is made up of alternating sugars and phosphate groups and is always read 5’-3’
two strands with antiparallel polarity
wound into a double helix
which nitrogenous bases are purines?
adenosine and guanine
which nitrogenous bases are pyrimidines?
cystine, thymine, uracil
chargaffs rules state?
a=t
g=c
no more no less
heterochromatin vs euchromatin
h: dense, transcriptionally silent DNA
e: less dense, transcriptionally active DNA
DNA leading strand vs lagging strand
leading: requires only 1 primer
lagging: requires many primers
what is recombinant DNA
DNA composed of nucleotides from 2 different sources
what is the central dogma
DNA->RNA->proteins
in genetic code, what is the initiation and termination codons
start: AUG
stop: UAA, UGA, UAG
what is the result of a silent mutation
no effect on protein synthesis
what is the result of a nonsense(truncation) mutation
produce a premature stop codon
what is the result of missense mutations
produce codon that codes for different amino acid
what is the result of frameshift mutations
result from nucleotide addition or deletion and change the reading frame of subsequent codons
what are the three things that are different in RNA from DNA
- substitute ribose sugar for deoxyribose
- substitute uracil for thymine
- single stranded instead of double
what are the three steps of transcription?
- helicase and topoisomerase unwind DNA double helix
- RNA polymerase 2 binds to TATA box within promoter
- hnRNA synthesized from DNA template
what does alternative splicing do
combines different exons to acquire different gene products
what are the three stages of translation
initiation
elongation
termination
where does translation occur at
ribosome
what is the difference between promoters and enhancers
p: within 25 base pairs of the transcription start site
e: more than 25 base pairs away from the transcription start site
what is osmotic pressure
pressure applied to a pure solvent to prevent osmosis
what is osmosis
diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
what is facilitated diffusion
uses transport proteins to move impermeable solutes across the cell membrane
where does glycolysis occur? does it need O2?
occurs in the cytoplasm of all cells
does not require O2
what is the end result of glycolysis
2 ATP per glucose
list the steps of citric acid cycle
Can I Keep Selling Sex For Money Officer?
start with pyruvate and acetyl-coA
citrate
isocitrate
Ketoglutarate
Succinyl-CoA
Succinate
Fumarate
Malate
Oxaloacetate
what is the proton motive force
electrochemical gradient generated by the electron transport chain across the inner mitochondrial membrane
glycogenesis
glycogen synthesis: building of glycogen using 2 main enzymes - glycogen synthase and branching enzyme
glycogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen using 2 main enzymes - glycogen phosphorylase and debranching enzyme
gluconeogenesis occurs where?
occurs in both cytoplasm and mitochondria, predominantly in the liver
what is gluconeogenesis
reverse of glycolysis
what are the layers of the skin
Come Lets Get Sun Burnt
Stratum corneum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum basalis
what is ectoderm
nervous system, epidermine, lens of eye, inner ear
endoderm
lining of digestive tract, lungs, liver and pancreas
mesoderm
muscles, skeleton, kidney, gonads, circulatory system
what are phospholipid bilayers composed of? describe exterior and interior
cholesterol and embedded proteins
exterior: hydrophilic phosphate head groups
interior: hydrophobic fatty acids
cell theory
all living things are composed of cells
cell is basic functional unit of life
cells arise from preexisting cells
what is the peptidoglycan when it comes to gram positive and negative bacteria
positive: thick peptidoglycan
negative: thin
how to prokaryotes divide
binary fission
what are the three steps of osmoregulation
filtration, secretion, and reabsorption
what is pinocytosis
ingestion of liquid into the cell from vesicles
what is phagocytosis
ingestion of solid material into the cell
where is the electron transport chain
matrix-facing surface of the inner mitochondrial membrane
what happens in the electron transport chain
NADH donates electrons into the chain, which are passed from one complex to the next.
reduction potentials increase down the chain, until electrons end up on oxygen, which have the highest reduction potential
what is palmitic acid
only fatty acid that humans can synthesize
where is palmitic acid produced
in the cytoplasm from acetyl-CoA transported out of the mitochondria
what does the liver do
maintain blood glucose
processes lipids, cholesterol, bile, urea, and toxins
adipose does?
stores and releases lipids
what do active muscle do
may use anaerobic metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, fatty acid oxidation etc.
what do resting muscles do
conserves carbohydrates as glycogen and uses free fatty acids for fuel
what are the anterior pituitary hormones
FLAT PEG
FSH
LH
ACTH
TSH
Prolactin
Endorphins
Growth hormone
what hormones are in the hypothalamus, stored in posterior pituitary
oxytocin
ADH/vasopressin
what hormones are in thyroid
thyroid hormones
calcitonin
what hormone is in the parathyroid
parathyroid hormone
where is the epinephrine and norepinephrine found
adrenal medulla
think: adrenal bc both of these increase blood glucose and heart rate bc of sympathetic nervous system
where are glucagon, insulin, and somatostatin found
pancreas
testosterone is found?
testes
what hormones are in the ovary
estrogen and progesterone
what is the source of melatonin
pineal
where can you find atrial natriuretic peptide
heart
where is thymosin found
thymus
what happens during resting potential
3 Na+ pumped out for every K+ pumped in
what does action potential do
stimulus acts on the neuron, depolarizing the membrane of the cell body
osteoblast vs osteoclast
blast: builds bone
clast: breaks down bone
what is reformation in terms of bone formation/remodeling?
inorganic ions are absorbed from the blood for use in bone
what is degradation in terms of bone formation/remodeling?
inorganic ions are released into the blood
what is a sarcomere? is the actin and myosin thin or thick?
contractile unit of the fibers in skeletal muscle; contains thin actin and thick myosin filaments
what is the circulatory pathway
superior and inferior vena cava –> right atrium –> right ventricle –> pulmonary arteries –> lungs –> pulmonary veins –> left atrium –> left ventricle –> aorta –> body
how does the blood flow through the heart
Try Pulling My Aorta
T: tricuspid
P: pulmonary
M: mitral/bicuspid
A: aortic
what is plasma
aqueous mix of nutrients, wastes, hormones, blood proteins, gases, and salts
erythrocytes are
red blood cells, carry oxygen
leukocytes are
white blood cells, function in immunity
what do platelets assist in
clotting
blood type A
RBC antigen:
antibodies:
donates to:
receives from:
RBC antigen: A
antibodies: anti-B
donates to: A, AB
receives from: A, O
blood type B
RBC antigen:
antibodies:
donates to:
receives from:
RBC antigen: B
antibodies: anti-A
donates to: B, AB
receives from: B, O
blood type AB
RBC antigen:
antibodies:
donates to:
receives from:
RBC antigen: A,B
antibodies: none
donates to: AB only
receives from: All
blood type O
RBC antigen:
antibodies:
donates to:
receives from:
RBC antigen: none
antibodies: anti- A,B
donates to: all
receives from: O only
where does a baby get oxygen and nutrients from
exchanges across placenta
where does gas exchange occur
alveoli
active immunity is
antibodies are produced during an immune response
passive immunity is
antibodies produced by one organism are transferred to another organism
humoral immunity is also known as
specific defense
B lymphocytes include what 2 cells
memory: remember antigen
plasma: make and release antibodies
T lymphocytes includes what 4 cells
cytotoxic: destroys cell directly
helper t cell: activate B and T cells and macrophages
suppressor t cells: regulate b and t cells to decrease anti-antigen activity
memory t cells
what do nonspecific immune response include
skin, passages lined with cilia, macrophages, inflammatory responses, interferons (proteins that help prevent the spread of a virus)
what is the function of pepsin
hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
what is the function of trypsin
hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
law of segregation
homologous alleles separate so that each gamete has one copy of each gene
law of independent assortment
alleles of unlinked genes assort independently in meiosis
what are point mutations
one nucleotide is substituted by another; they are solent if the sequence of amino acids doesn’t chage
what are frameshift mutations
insertions or deletions shift reading frame
difference between lytic and lysogenic cycle
lytic: virus kills host cell
lysogenic: virus enters host genome
electron configuration
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
7s 7p
what are the electrons that do not follow the octet rule
H (2)
He (2)
Li (2)
Be (4)
B (6)
what is hund’s rule
within a given subshell, orbitals are filled such that there a maximum number of half filled orbitals with parallel spins
what is a polar covalent bond
bonding electron pair is not shared equally
it is pulled towards more electronegative atom
if delta G is negative, the reaction spontaneous?
yes
if delta G is positive, the reaction is spontaneous?
no
what is entropy
measure of randomness (distribution of energy) throughout the system
ideal gas law formula
PV=nRT
as pressure of a gas increases, particles are pushed (closer/farther)
closer
as temperature of a gas decreases, average velocity of the gas molecules (increases/decreases)
decreases
diffusion vs effusion
d: occurs when gas molecules distribute through a volume by random motion
e: flow of gas particles under pressure from one compartment to another through a small opening
what is oxidation
loss of electrons
what is reduction
gain of electrons
nucleophiles are
nucleus loving
tend to have lone pairs or pi ponds that can form new bonds to electrophiles
electrophiles are
electron loving
tend to have a positive charge or positively polarized atom
enantiomers
mirror images; opposite stereochemistry at every chiral carbon
diastereomers
non-mirror images stereoisomers
differ at some but not all chiral carbons
kinetic energy formula
K= 1/2mv^2
newton’s law of gravitation
F= Gm1m2/r^2
in ethics, what does beneficence mean
requirement to do good
in ethics, what does nonmaleficence mean
do not harm
in ethics, what does autonomy mean
right of individuals to make decisions for themselves
in ethics, what does justice mean
need to consider only morally relevant differences between patients and to distribute healthcare resources fairly
in a graph, what is the dependent variable? how about independent?
d: y axis
I: x axis
thin: you are trying to be independent from your x
are transmembrane domains polar or nonpolar
nonpolar
how should you think of the inhibitors in terms of Vmax and Km
think: CUN
VMax Km
C. stable. up
U. down. down
N. down. stable
isomerase
Enzymes that restructure the chemical formula of a compound
hydrolase
enzymes that catalyze bond cleavages by reaction with water
transferase
Enzymes that transfer chemical groups between compounds
Oxidoreductases
Enzymes that catalyze the removal of electrons and hydrogen atoms
Cultural transmission
transmission of values and practices from one generation to another
Cultural relativism
evaluating the cultural practices of a different society not from one’s own cultural perspective, but from that society’s perspective
Cultural diffusion
mutual exchange of cultural values and practices among cultural groups in a society or among societies
Cultural assimilation
social dynamic where a culture becomes indistinguishable from the majority culture
what is the ideal gas law
PV=nRT
remember: R is 0.08206
what is deposition in terms phase changes
gas to solid
what is sublimation in terms of phase changes
solid to gas
what is freezing in terms of phase changes
liquid to solid
what kind of wave is light
electromagnetic wave
what is dispersion
change in speed or change in index of refraction vs wavelength(or frequency)
what is interference
when waves add or subtract with each other
what is absorption
when a wave energy gets absorbed by a material
what is polarization
when fields which make up the light wave have a definite direction in space
is energy proportional or inversely proportional to frequency? why (think of formula)?
proportional
E=hf
h is plank’s constant
is frequency proportional or inversely proportional to wavelength?
f=c/l
c is the speed of light
so it is inversely proportional
what is modernization
reduced importance of religion as society industrializes
what is secularization
reduced power of religion as religious involvement declines
what is fundamentalism
renewed commitment to traditional religion as a reaction to secularization
enantiomers are similar in what 3 properties
density
boiling point
IR spectrum
Is CO2 basic or acidic
mildly acidic
what does an allosteric inhibitor do
binds to an enzyme at a site other than the active site
is something more likely to go through a cell membrane if it is hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
hydrophobic
nocioreceptors are also known as
pain receptors
