M6 Ch22 Cloning and biotechnology Flashcards
What is vegetation propogation?
Vegetation propogation involves perennating organs which enables plants to survive adverse conditions - faster than growing from a seed - takes cuttings
Examples of plants that are cloned naturally
Examples of plants that are cloned naturally:
-Bulbs (form internally and develop into new shoots)
-Runners (lateral stem growing from parents plant eventually touching grownd)
-Rhizosomes (stem running undergrown where buds develop)
-Stem tubers (tip forms tuber - buds develop)
Evaluation of use of cuttings in natural cloning
Evaluation of use of cuttings in natural cloning:
+ = fast, guranteed quality
- = vulnerable to some diseases
How cuttings are used in natural cloning
How cuttings are used in natural cloning:
-Cut between nodes
-Use of hormone rooting powder
-Cut end of stem placed in damp soil
How sugar cane is cloned?
Cloning sugar cane:
-Makes sugar and biofuel
-Propogated by cloining (short lengths with three nodes cut and buried in soil)
What is micropropogation?
Micropropogation = plants grown from small pieces of plant tissue on sterile nutrient-rich jelly
When is micropropogation used involving tissue cuttings?
Micropropogation is used to produce a new plant when the new plant:
-Does not readilyproduce seeds
-Doesn’t respond to natural cloning well
-Is rare
-Has been genetically modified
Process of micropropagation by callus tissue culture
Process of micropropagation by callus tissue culture:
-Cells taken from shoot tip with sterile forceps
-Callus culture in nutrient agar
-Shoot-stimulating hormones added + root stimulating hormones
-Planted into compost
Advantages of micropropogation
Micropropogation:
-Rapid clone production
-Culturing meristem tissue is disease-free
-Cultures GE plants
-Reliable way of increasing rare species
Disadvantages of micropropogation
Disadvantages of micropropogation :
-Monoculture -> vulnerability to disease
-Expensive
-Requires skilled workers
-Some infected - all will then be infected
Natural cloning in invertebrates
Natural cloning in invertebrates = ie hydra producing small buds which develop into clones - occurs naturally without mates - ie aphids
Natural cloning in vertebrates
Natural cloning in vertebrates - monozygotic twins - varies across species and trigger is unknown
Artificial cloning in animals
Artificial cloning involves totipotent stem cells (formation of entire organisms) and artificial twinning
How does artificial twinning work?
-Artifical twinning is when the early embryo is split to reduce identical offspring
-Stages involve:
1) Organism with desirable traits treated with hormones - super ovulates
2) Ova fertilised and goes into uterus
3). When cells are totipotent, cells from embryo split to produce more embryos - grown in a lab then implanted into surrogate mother
Positives of artificial twinning
Positives of artificial twinning:
-Allows for more offspring from superior stock
-Freezing embryos allow fro analysis so that only the best is then used
What is somatic cell nuclear transfer?
Somatic cell nuclear transfer is when the nucleus is taken from an adult somatic cell and transferried into an enucleated egg cell
What is an enucleated egg cell?
An enucleated egg cell is an oocyte which has had the nucleas removed - it is used in somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)
Describe the process of somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) (eg Dolly the sheep)
Process of somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT):
1). Nucleus removed from somatic cell (eg adult animal)
2). Place nucleus into an enucleated egg cell + pass an electrical current (electrofusion can then occur where they fuse and divide)
3). Embryo develops and transferred into uterus of 3rd animal (clone however mitochondrial DNA will come from egg cell)
Why are clones from SCNT not entirely exact clones?
Clones from SCNT are not exactly genetically identical because of:
-Mitochondrial DNA being different due being obtained from the egg cell
-Random mutation may have occured
Advantages of animal cloning
Advantages of animal cloning:
-Higher yields
-Enables GM cells to be cloned
-Prevents exctinction of rare species
Disadvantages of animal cloning
Disadvantages of animal cloning:
-SCNT inefficient as it can take many eggs - raises ethical issues
-Shortened lifespans (eg Dolly)
What is biotechnology?
Biotechnology is the use of microorganisms in industry
Why is biotechnology used?
Biotechnology is used because:
-Ideal growth conditions easily created
-Short lifecycles - rapid growth
-Produces proteins and metabolites into surrounding harvest
-No welfare conditions
-Large range of microorganisms that can be used
-Can be contained within cells
Yeast usage
Yeast usage:
-Brew beer
-Added to grain and respires anaerobically to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide via fermentation
-Makes bread rise
Cheese production
Cheese production:
-Uses lactic acid bacteria
-Converts lactose into lactic acid - solidifies milk
Yoghurt production
Yoghurt production:
-Lacticacid bacteria clots milk and gives it a sour taste
-Fermentated and incubated at high temperature
-Flavours and colours then added
What is direct food production?
Direct food production:
-Single cell protein eg Quorn
-Meat replacement
-High protein and low fat
Production of penicillin
Production of penicillin:
-Fungi produce penicillin in times of stress - sensitive to pH and temp
-Oxygenated in production, containing a buffer to maintain the pH
Production of insulin
Production of insulin:
-Involves GM bacteria containing the gene for insulin production
What is bioremediation?
Bioremediation - uses microorganisms to remove pollutants
-Using natural organisms ->biological ie in crude oil ->brakdsown many contaminants
-Using GM organisms - GM bacteria which breakdown contaminates
What are the advantages of biotechnology?
Biotechnology advantages:
-Quick, easy and cheap to culture
-Cultured anywhere with the right equipment
-Healthier option to animal protein
What are the disadvantages of biotechnology?
Disadvantages of biotechnology:
-Conditions may lead to growth of other microorganisms
-People may not like eating food from waste products
-Single cell protein doesn’t have same texture of flavour as real meet
Culturing bacteria via broth inoculation
Inoculating broth:
-Make suspensionof bacteria to be grown
-Mix known volume with the sterile nutrient broth
-Stopper the flask with cotton wool to prevent contamination from the air
-Inocubate at suitable temperatures, shaking regularly to aerate the broth, providing oxygen to the bacteria
Culturing bacteria via agar inoculation
Inoculating agarL
-Sterile incubating loop held in a bunsen flame
-Dip loop into bacterial suspension, keeping agar surface intact
-Replace petri dish lid (not entirely sealed so to allow some oxygen in so that anaerobic bacteria doesn’t grow)
What are the 4 stages of a bacterial growth curve?
4 Stages of a bacterial growth curve:
-Lag phase
-Log/exponential phase
-Stationary phase
-Death phase
Lag phase of a bacterial growth curve
Lag phase of a bacterial growth curve:
-Adjusting to their environment, synthesis enzymes
Log/exponential phase of a bacterial growth curve
Log/exponential phase of a bacterial growth curve:
-Rate is at theoretrical maximum
Stationary phase of a bacterial growth curve
Stationary phase of a bacterial growth curve:
-Total growth rate is zero -> new cells produced by binary fission is cancelled out
Death stage of a bacterial growth curve
Death stage of a bacterial growth curve:
-Ceased reproduction + cells die
What are the limiting factors which prevent exponential growth in a culture of bacteria?
Limiting factors preventing bacterial exponential growth:
-Nutrients available
-Oxygen levels
-Temperature
-Build-up of waste material
-pH change
What are primary metabolites?
Primary metabolites: produced by an organism as part of it’s normal growth -> concentration proportional population size -> produced during lag and exponential phases -> eg proteins, nucleic acids, ethanol
What are secondary metabolites?
Secondary metabolites = not part of it’s normal growth -> rarer than primary metabolites -> when microbe well-established in growth medium -> concentration not proportional to population size -> produced in stationary phase
Batch fermentation as a type of bioprocess
Batch fermentation as a type of bioprocess:
-Microorganisms inoculated into a fixed volume of medium
-Nutrients used up, new biomass and waste products build up
-Growth ceases at stationary phase and microorganisms carry out biochemical changes to form desired end products
-Process stopped before death phase and products harvested
Continuous culture as a type of bioprocess
Continuous culture as a type of bioprocess:
-Microorganisms incubated in sterile medium
-Medium added continuously once reached exponential growth
-Culture broth continuously removed and volume kept constant
Factors that need to be controlled in a bioreactor
Factors that need to be controlled in a bioreactor:
-Temperature
-Nutrients and oxygen
-Mixing things up continously
-Asepsis - to prevent outside contamination
What are the advantages of using isolated enzymes?
Advantages of using isolated enzymes:
-Less wasteful
-More efficient - works at high concenrtations, and can have the optimum conditions
-Less downstream processing (testing for purity)
Why are most isolated enzymes used in industry extracellular?
Most isolated enzymes used in industry are extracellular because:
-Secreted out - so more easily obtained and used
-Few produced, so easy to identify and isoate
-More adapted to cope with various conditions than intracellular
What are immobolised enzymes? (Which are used in industry)
Immobilized enzymes:
-Stationery during the catalytic process - can be recovered from mixture + reused, does not contaminate final product
Advantages of using immobolised enzymes in industry
Advantages of using immobolised enzymes in industry:
-Reused - cheaper
-Easily seperated from the reactant
-Reliable - high control over process
-Greater temperature tolerance - less expensive
-Ease of manipulation - catalytic processes can be altered
Disadvantages of using immobolised enzymes in industry
Disadvantages of using immobolised enzymes in industry:
-Reduced efficiency - process of immobolising may reduce activity rate
-Higher initial cost of materials
-High initial cost of bioreactor
-Potential technical issues
What are the 4 ways of immbolising enzymes to be used in industry?
4 ways of immobolising enzymes :
-Surface immobolisation: via absorption of inorganic carriers, or covalent/ionic bonding to inorganic carriers
-Entrapment: entrapped in matrix or entrapped in micro-capsules (encapsulation)
Micropropogation process
Micropropogation process:
-Take sample of plant (ie meristematic tissue
-Sterilise using ethanol
-Explant (sample) placed in culture medium and mitosis stimulated, medium contains auxin
-Callus is divided into cells and placed in other culture medium
-Cells placed in compost and grown
