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Comparative Anatomy And Physiology Of Animals > Locomotion > Flashcards

Locomotion Flashcards

1
Q

Reasons animals move

A

Get food
Avoid predation
Find mates
Find/follow suitable habitat

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2
Q

Types of muscle shape

A

Longitudinal
Pennate
Convergent
Circular

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3
Q

Types of longitudinal muscles

A

Fusiform
Parallel

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4
Q

Types of pennate muscles

A

Multipennate
Bipennate
Unipennate

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5
Q

Resistive forces to motion

A

Friction - terrestrial
Gravity
Drag - aquatic

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6
Q

Crawling

A

Peristaltic/pedal waves associated with
-loops
-anchors
2 anchor system the simplest

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7
Q

Types of peristaltic/pedal waves

A

Retrograde
Direct

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8
Q

Retrograde waves

A

Waves move from back to front
Mostly in septate animals

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9
Q

Direct waves

A

Waves move from back to front
Mostly in non-septate animals

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10
Q

Pedal waves

A

Move forward
Interwaves = stationary
Pedal waves move faster than the animal
Friction in interwaves must be stronger than friction in the waves
Net direction of movement is forward

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11
Q

Movement via pedal waves

A

Pedal waves- animal lifts the body away from the ground but only marginally
Interwaves- animal presses down against the ground, providing thrust

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12
Q

Types of pedal waves

A

Monotaxic - single line of waves
Ditaxic - 2 asynchronous lines of waves
Tertrataxic - 4 asynchronous lines of waves

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13
Q

Pedal mucus

A

Combination of sticky pedal mucus with a thinner lubricating mucus (comprising the snail slime) provides lubrication while allowing sufficient grip to overcome gravity
Pressure beyond a critical value causes the mucus to lose adhesive property
The change in pressure is caused by the animal pressing against the surface.
Animal would have to press down in pedal waves instead of lifting, thus exceeding the critical stress yield value of the mucus

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14
Q

Sidewinding

A

More efficient in plain surfaces with few irregularities to provide grip, such as desert plains

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15
Q

Types of crawling

A

Pedal waves
Sidewinding
Lateral undulation
Vertebrate crawling
Galloping

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16
Q

Lateral undulation

A

A variation of anchor and loop movement in invertebrates

Made easier and more efficient by the presence of the spinal chord

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17
Q

Structure of muscle

A

Sarcomere
Myosin and actin
ZIAHMHAIZ

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18
Q

What are septate animals

A

Segmented

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19
Q

Peristaltic waves

A

Works because the animal is surrounded by soil

Thickening of the body increases contact with the surrounding soil, increasing friction (with the help of specialized setae)

Thinning of the body has the opposite effect

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20
Q

Frictional anisotropy

A

Difference in friction on snake scales depending on direction on the ground

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21
Q

Stride definition

A

One full cycle of leg movement
2 phases in one stride: swing phase and stance phase

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22
Q

How is leg movement achieved

A

a set of muscles that connect inside of the thorax to the coxa of the leg
Leg flexing and extension controlled by muscles in the Femur
Muscles attach to the inside surface of the exoskeleton.

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23
Q

Arthropod biomechanics

A

Exoskeleton constraints the size and positioning of the muscle
Insect legs have a wide range of movement but produce relatively little work

Muscles are often pennate, which have shorter contraction distances, but produce more force
They also don’t change volume with contraction

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24
Q

Leg posture in arthropods

A

Horizontal sprawled leg postures allow some insects to take advantage of gravity for leg movement

Vertical sprawled leg postures can decouple weight loading from movement muscles

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25
Q

What descriptors describe different gaits

A
  • Leg position
  • Stepping pattern
  • Stride period (time for one leg to complete one movement cycle)
  • Stride length (distance the centre of mass covers in one stride cycle
  • Stride cycle (rate at which segments are cycled)
  • Speed = stride length x stride frequency
  • Duty factor (fraction of time one leg supports load)
  • Phase (fraction of a cycle on leg leads or lags another)
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26
Q

Walking

A

For walking to occur, potential energy must be converted to kinetic energy
Bipedal walking similar to an inverted pendulum mechanism

Because gravity acceleration is constant, there is a limit to how fast animals can walk
To move faster, animals must change gait

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27
Q

Sprawled gait

A

Sprawled vertebrates increase speed by moving legs faster and exaggerating sideways movement to increase step distance; energetically costly

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28
Q

Running

A

Takes advantage of gravity and body elasticity to preserve energy
Duty factor is lower in running than in walking
In most animals, duty factor = 0.5 marks the boundary between walking and running
Under this criteria, cockroaches never run

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29
Q

Quantifying gaits- froude number

A

Fr = V^2/gL
V = velocity
g = gravity acceleration
L = length of leg

Ratio of centripetal forces and gravity

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30
Q

Why are insects size limited

A

Insects are small and lightweight, so little work is required to move them

There is a maximum size an insect can attain, beyond which the animal muscles cannot produce enough work to sustain their own weight.

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31
Q

At what froude number do all vertebrates shift from walking to running

A

0.5 (0.3-0.8)

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32
Q

Quadrupedal running gaits

A

Symmetrical: trot, pace (camels), amble (elephants)
Asymmetric used at Fr>2.5

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33
Q

Jumping/hopping

A

Development of hind legs relative to body length

Smaller femur, with longer fibula/tibia and feet bones (only for vertebrates)

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34
Q

What force does walking take most advantage of

A

Gravity

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35
Q

Duty factor

A

How long the legs are on the ground

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36
Q

At what duty factor is the boundary between walking and running

A

0.5

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37
Q

Centripetal force equation

A

mV^2/L

38
Q

Gravity equation

A

mg

39
Q

Disadvantage of sprawled gaits

A

High energetic cost

40
Q

What gave humans a locomotive advantage

A

Sweating system

41
Q

Important forces in aquatic locomotion

A

Buoyancy
Drag
Gravity

42
Q

What is the big opponent in aquatic locomotion

A

Drag

43
Q

Moving through water

A

Positive buoyancy reduces effect of gravity
High density of water increases the effect of drag
Water must be pushed back to achieve forward thrust (wake)

44
Q

Reynolds number

A

Inertial drag/ viscous drag

( Density x velocity x length ) / viscosity

45
Q

Low Reynolds number <10

A

Fluid behaves like honey

46
Q

High Reynolds number >100

A

Fluid behaves like water

47
Q

What can affect the Reynolds number

A

How fast they swim
Size

48
Q

Gaits in aquatic locomotion in invertebrates

A

Rowing (drag powered)
Tail-flipping
Lift powered
Jetting

49
Q

Rowing

A

Works at low and high Reynolds numbers
Forward movement of the oars produces drag, making it relatively inefficient

50
Q

Tail flipping

A

Works only at Reynolds numbers >500
Turns the shrimp into a hydrodynamic shape

51
Q

Jetting

A

Provides fast acceleration but energetically costly over long periods
Good to escape predators
Works best at Reynolds numbers >2000
Jet orifice - shoot water out

52
Q

Gaits in aquatic locomotion in vertebrates

A

Lift powered
Lateral undulation

53
Q

Lift powered

A

Works great at Reynolds numbers >2000
Sinusoidal movement of pectoral fins provides lift on both forward and back strokes
Fluid moves faster on one side of the body , generating lift

54
Q

Lateral undulation

A

Characterised by waves of contraction from front to back of body
Waves push against the water providing thrust
At high speeds the whole body of fish acts as a hydrofoil

55
Q

Muscle used in lateral undulation

A

White muscle has low haemoglobin and mitochondria concentration; used during anaerobic swimming

Red muscle has high haemoglobin and mitochondria concentration; used during aerobic swimming

Proportion of red muscle varies from as little as 1% (cod), to 14% (mackerel) or more (tuna)

Muscle organization allows for even shortening through whole body

56
Q

Undulation

A

Fish can use a combination of both
Lateral undulation moves a lot of water to the sides… thus increasing drag
More efficient to maintain a rigid body, and concentrate wave movement as far back to the tail as possible (keep an airfoil shape)

57
Q

Swimming energetics

A

Water moves back at each stroke, thus dissipating some energy of such stroke

Drag increases with velocity squared (v*v)

Momentum is mass * velocity

More efficient to move large amounts of water at slow speeds, than small amounts of water at high speeds.

58
Q

Most efficient swimmers in the ocean

A

Cetaceans

59
Q

Size and swimming energetics

A

Larger —> more water displaced —> swim more efficiently

60
Q

Type of muscle used in short term thrusts

A

Red muscle

61
Q

Type of muscle used in long term swimming

A

White muscle

62
Q

Tail lift

A

Geometry of tail affects type of lift and power generated
Wider tails with points at ends - long distance movement
Smaller tails- thrust and power

63
Q

Thrust = momentum

A

Mass x velocity = momentum
Drag increases as velocity increases V^2
Therefore if double velocity of water drag increases by factor of 4
So moving more water, slower = same momentum but least lost to drag

64
Q

Cetaceans

A

Whales
Dolphins
Porpoises

65
Q

Why are whales migratory

A

Swimming is very energy efficient due to size

66
Q

Important forces in aerial locomotion

A

Drag
Gravity

67
Q

Wing properties

A

Faster you go
Drag changes as a function of velocity
Easier to generate lift
Easier to fight gravity

68
Q

Physics of flying

A

Air behaves like a fluid
The same principles of drag and lift talked about in aquatic locomotion apply to aerial locomotion
The main differences relate to lower density of air relative to water, and the constant effect of GRAVITY

69
Q

Reynolds number and aerial locomotion

A

Dependent on surface properties- bumpy = faster
Flight velocity and drag

70
Q

Lift to drag ratio

A

Lift/drag
Birds = 2-20
Insects = 0.5-2

71
Q

Gaits for aerial locomotion in vertebrates

A

Hovering
Forward powered flight
Gliding/soaring

72
Q

Vertebrate wings

A

Muscles on endoskeleton

73
Q

Hovering

A

Forward and backward stroke to generate lift
Hummingbirds = symmetrical - figure of 8 pattern
Kestrels = asymmetrical - bend their wings in the backstroke to reduce drag - push down to generate lift

74
Q

Vertebrate wing muscles

A

Flight is promoted by the pectoral muscles, connecting the sternum to the humerus near the shoulder joint

Good distance advantage, but weak force advantage

Sternum is modified to allow the attachment of large muscles

75
Q

Gliding

A

3 forces must be in balance: lift (provided by wings); drag (caused by air resistance); weight (promoted by gravity)

Gliding angle is changed by moving wings (backwards increase the angle), higher angles means higher speeds

Minimum sink speed is the forward speed at which downward speed is less

Maximum range speed is the forward speed at which gliding angle is minimum, thus travelling a higher distance for a given height loss

Maximum range speed is slightly faster than Minimum sink speed

Gliding farther means increasing speed at the expense of faster height loss

76
Q

Minimum sink speed

A

Forward speed at which downward speed is less

77
Q

Maximum range speed

A

The forward speed at which gliding angle is minimum, thus travelling a higher distance for a given height loss

78
Q

Gliding and size

A

Larger birds glide faster
Remaining differences due to wing shape

79
Q

Soaring

A

If there is a vertical component to the wind, then animals can keep gliding indefinitely

Many birds of prey take advantage of local upward winds to hover without flapping wings

Allow to scan for prey with minimum fuss

80
Q

Types of soaring

A

Slope soaring
Thermal soarin- takes advantage of warm convection currents

81
Q

Gaits of aerial locomotion in invertebrate s

A

Hovering
Forward powered flight

82
Q

Difference in insects and birds flying

A

Wings can be smaller
Generating wing motions must be faster (smaller so must move faster in order to generate the necessary force)
Air is different when you’re small- Reynolds number- insects have a lower Reynolds number (air is more viscous)

83
Q

Forward flight

A

Movement of wings similar to movement of fins in lift powered swimming

Wing is rotated in the upstroke to avoid downward lift

84
Q

Insect flight muscles

A

Muscles that power flight attach to the inside of the thorax, not the wings themselves

Change in thorax shape forces the wings up and down

Maximizes power given the limited space inside exoskeleton

Muscles that attach to the wing are small and only control wing orientation

85
Q

What powers soaring

A

Updraft of air

86
Q

Where can slope soaring occur

A

Hills
Dunes
Waves

87
Q

Wing morphology

A

Slope soarer- long and narrow
Thermal soarer- wide and large
Hunter- shorter and wide (can generate large amounts of thrust for strikes)

88
Q

Why can insect wings be smaller and thinner

A

Mass is proportional to volume
Lift is proportional to wing area

89
Q

How can insects combat a low Reynolds number

A

Increasing initial speed- take off by generating powerful jumps

90
Q

Hovering in insects

A

Difference between hovering and forward flight depends on body angle relative to ground
Change angle of body- tilt up to change direction of lift - as cannot change direction of wings

91
Q

Muscles in wings?

A

Insects must tilt whole body as cannot change direction of wings as have no muscles in wings

Comparative Anatomy And Physiology Of Animals (10 decks)

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