Lifespan/Development Flashcards
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model (2004)
Microsystem- relationships
Meso system- interactions between components of microsystem
Exostsystem-community, media, parent work
Macrosystem- politics, economics, culture
Chronosystem
Rutter (1985)
Risk & Resilience
4 or more risks—> 21% risk for negative outcomes
6 risk factors: Marital discord Low SES Large family size Parental incarceration Maternal mental illness Placement outside home
Canalization
Genotype restricts phenotype to a small number of possible outcomes
Genotype-environment correlation
Genes influence environment
Passive genotype-environment correlation -genes predict certain traits and parents reinforce them
Evocative genotype-environment correlation- child has traits that evoke certain responses
Active genotype-environment or niche picking - children seek out environments related to their traits
Stages of prenatal development
Germinal - first 2 weeks (zygote)
Embryonic- 3rd to 8th week
Fetal- 9th week to birth
PKU
Due to pair of recessive genes
Lack enzyme needed to metabolize phenylalanine
Took much P, amino acid found in dairy, eggs, bread
Chromosomal disorders
Down syndrome- autosomal (extra chromosome 21 or sometimes translocation)
Klinefelter - sex linked - in boys due to multiple X chromosomes and Y (sterile, small penis, learning disabilities)
Turner syndrome - in girls, one X chromosome, short, drooping eyelids, no secondary sex characteristics
Prader-Willi Syndrome - chromosome deletion - obese, ID, OCD traits
Teratogens
Usually occur in embryonic stage (3-8 weeks)
Fetal alcohol syndrome
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) - irreversible le physical, behavioral, and cognitive abnormalities
Alcohol-related neurodevelopment disorder (ARND) and alcohol related birth defects (ARBD) are less severe forms of FASD
Regions impacted: corpus callosum, cerebellum, basal ganglia, frontal lobes hypothalamus
Cocaine use during pregnancy
High pitched cry, low birth weight, still birth, SIDS, startle response, tremors, developmental delays
Nicotine during pregnancy
Can cause fetal death and still birth
Low birth weight, SIDS, respiratory diseases, social and emotional disturbances and cognitive deficits
Lead exposure during pregnancy
Low birth weight and intellectual disability
Rubella
Cytomegalovirus
HIV/AIDS
during pregnancy
Rubella - Heart defects, blindness, deafness and intellectual disability
CMV- herpes virus leads to death (20-30%), ID, hearing/vision impairments
HIV/AIDS- transmitted via pregnancy, childbirth or breast feeding but medication can drop risk to 1%
Malnutrition during pregnancy
Lack of protein can cause reduced number of neurons, reduced myelination, NT abnormalities
A lack of folic acids can cause spina bifida or another neural tube defect
Resilience factors in baby
Good temperament marked by high degree of social responsivity and good communication skills
Small gestational age consequences
Asphyxia during birth, respiratory disease, hypoglycemia, physical problems and learning disabilities
Major reflexes of newborns
Babinski - toes fan out when tickled
Rooting- turn head when pressure on cheek
Moro (startle) flings arms and legs our and then in in response to loud noise or loss of physical response
Stepping makes walking movement when held upright
Perceptions in newborns
Look at faces at 2-5 days
Prefer to look at mom by 2 months
1-4 months: suckling
12 weeks/3 mons plus - reaching
5.5 months-12 months -head turning
Heart rate and respiration for any age
Hearing and vision during infancy
Newborns see at 20 ft and increase to normal by 6 months
Vision: kinetic, binocular, pictorial
Auditory develops in last month of prenatal
Auditory localization shortly after birth
3 months prefer sound of moms voice
A few days after birth can distinguish a and i sounds, and consonants by 2/3 months
Pain in newborns
Early pain (circumcissum without anesthesia and procedures) lead to greater pain sensitivity
Developmental milestones
1-3 m: raise chin, turn head, put stuff in mouth
4-6m: tummy time, teeth, sits on lap, at 6 months sits and stands with help
7-9m: sits without help, crawling, pulls up on furniture
10-12 m: stands up alone and walks
13-15m: scribbles spontaneously and uses cup
16-24 months: runs, goes up stairs, kicks balls, toileting
25-48 m: jumps, hand finger coordination, dress and undress, starts showing hand preference
Puberty and outcomes
Girls start physical maturation at 11-12: Boys 13-14
Boys: Early puberty for boys- popular, athleticism BUT drugs, alcohol, delinquency, depression
Late puberty for boys- childish, attention seeking, less self confidence
Girls:
Early puberty - poor self concept, unpopular, low academic achievement, sex, drug use, depression, eating disorders
Late puberty- treated like little girls and dislike physical appearance but high academic performance
Effects disappear by adulthood
Adaptation via assimilation and accommodation
Piaget believed reality and schema differences —> disequilibrium
We adapt by
1. Assimilation - interpret new info into existing scheme
- Accommodate- change schema to fit in new info
Piaget’s 4 stages of development
High level
- Sensorimotor(birth to 2 yrs) - circular relations to reproduce events that happened by chance
- Pre-operational (2 to 7 years) - symbolic play, mental representations
- Concrete operational (7 to 11/12) - mental operations, logical rules, conservation, decalage
- Formal operational (11/12+) - hypothetical deductive reasoning and abstract thinking. Adolescent egocentrism
Sensorimotor (birth to 2)
- Reflexive- birth to 1m
- Primary circular -1-4m - repeat pleasurable events (thumb sucking)
- Secondary circular - 4-8m - events with others/objects (shake rattle)
- Coordinated circular - 8-12m - combines secondary reactions (uncover toy and grab it)
- Tertiary circular (12-18m)- varied actions to discover consequences (throw toy down stairs)
- Mental representation (18-24m)- symbolic thought and representations to allow them to think about past events and consequences of actions.
Sensorimotor- deep level
6 substages
Object permanence develops during stage 4 (coordinated circular)- uncover object and grab it
Other skills that develop:
Causality
Deferred imitation of other people behavior
Make believe/ symbolic play
Preoperational (2-7y) deeper level
Form mental representations and symbolic play but there are challenges:
Precausal (transductive) reasoning- incomplete understanding of cause and effect
Results in magical thinking- belief that thinking of something will make it occur
Animism- attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects
Egocentrism
Centration- focus on most notable feature of objects and as a result dont conserve (don’t realize that liquid stays the same in tall vs short glass)
Concrete operations (8-11/12) deeper level
Capable of mental operations, logical rules for transforming and manipulating information.
They can
Solve class inclusion problems
Seriate- order items by length/size
Understanding part/while in terms of bigger/smaller
Conservation- known liquid is the same in tall vs short glass
Conservation development
Horizontal decalage is how Piaget described the gradual development of conservation abilities
Conservation depends on reversibility and decentration
Numbers>liquid>length>weight>displacement volume
Formal operations (11/12+)
Able to think abstractly and use hypothetical and deductive reasoning, develop competing hypotheses about a problem and strategies for systematically testing them
Adolescent egocentrism traits:
Personal fable- one is unique and not the subject of natural laws that govern others
Imaginary audience
Vygotsky sociocultural (Neo-Piagetian)
Sociocultural theory- all learning is socially mediated and cognitive development is first interpersonal and then intrapersonal (internalize what you learn)
Vygotsky zone of proximal development
Scaffolding
Discrepancy between the current developmental level and the one just beyond it where the child can learn with help from others.
Scaffolding- Instructions, support and assistance. - most effective when it involved modeling, cues, and alternative plans of action.
Symbolic play helps child practice behaviors.
Self-talk is self-directed speech that helps children regulate and organize their behaviors. And it becomes internal as child grows older.
Theory of mind
2-3 yrs- become aware of others mental states and that they impact people’s actions
4-5 others may have false beliefs and act on them
6- people’s actions don’t always match their thoughts, different people interpret things differently.
Teen- have mixed thoughts about people and events.
Memory in childhood
3 mons-Recognition memory for up to 24 hrs after seeing stimulus (habituation studies)
6-12 mons: recall past events (using imitation studies)
Preschool/elementary children can use memory strategies in the moment but not apply them well. They use them better by 9/10.
High school students use them well.
Cognitive changes in adulthood
Synchrony effect- Peak memory and arousal in am for older adults and in evening for young adults
Episodic memories before age 3/4 in retrievable.
Infantile amnesia- due to underdeveloped prefrontal cortex and language abilities abilities.
Older adults show greatest decline in recent long term memory than younger adults
Age related working memory declines from reduced processing speed and ability to ignore irrelevant info.
Declines in long term memory due to older adults not using effective encoding strategies.
Chomsky - language development
Innate Language acquisition device (LAD) makes it possible to acquire la gauge just by being exposed to it
Nativist approach
(There is also a behaviorist and interactionist approach)
Speaking involves transforming deep structure into surface structure and hearing is the reverse.
Phonemes vs morpheme
Phoneme- smallest working unit of language (English has 45, including th)
Morpheme smallest unit that conveys meaning ie “ing”op
Language development (up to 15 months)
Babies have hunger, pain and anger cries
Moms respond quickest to pain cries
Faster responses in first few months—> baby relies on expressions, gestures and vocalizations to communicate
Cooing at 6-8wks
Babbling at 4 months
Native language babbling 9-14 months
Echolalia and expressive jargon at 9 mons
At 13 months 50 receptive language words
By 18 months 50 expressive language words
10-15 months first words are nouns or objects child uses
Holophrasic - single word that expresses whole phrase
Language development (18m - 7 years)
18-34 months - telegraphic speech- string two words together to make a sentence (300-400 words)
30-36 m- fastest rate of word growth (3,000 words)
2.5-5 yrs- grammar complexity, some problems with grammar overgeneralization
6-7 years- meta linguistic skills, can use metaphors.
Overextension versus overregularlization
Overextension is calling all 4-legged animals “doggie”
Over-regularization is using “tooths” instead of teeth.
Thomas and Chess - Goodness-of-fit model
Predicts that the degree of match between a child’s temperament and their parents that contributes to their child’s outcomes.
Behavioral inhibition
Children identified as inhibited or uninhibited by 21 months and this predicts 5.5 and 7.5 year follow-ups
Behaviorally inhibited kids more at risk for social phobia in adolescence.
Freud’s theory of psychosocial development
Personality determined by how conflicts at each stage are resolved.
Oral (birth-1 year) - weaning is the conflict
Anal (1-3 yrs)- control of body waste/toileting.
Phallic (3-6 years)- Oedipal conflict (desire for opposite sec parent and same sex parent is rival). Superego develops here.
Latency (6-12 years)- libidinal energy is diffuse rather than on one body part. focus on social skills rather sexual gratification
Genital (12+)- successful outcome is when desire blended with affection
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
Focus on ego development not id
- Trust v Mistrust (infancy)- HOPE(0-1.5)
- Autonomy v Shame/Doubt- (toddler) -WILL (1.5-3)
- Initiative v Guilt (preschool) - PURPOSE(3-5)
- Industry v inferiority(school age; 5-12) COMPETENCY
- Identity vs role confusion (adolescence) - FIDELITY (12-18)
- Intimacy vs isolation (young adult) - LOVE (18-40)
- Generatvity v Stagnation (middle adulthood) - CARE (40-65)
- Ego integrity v Despair (old age)- WISDOM (65+)
Levinson’s Seasons of a Man’s Life
Stressful transitions
- Early adult (17-22): formation of “The Dream”
- Age “30” (28-33): perceived pressure to fully enter adult world. Followed by period of settling down
- Mid-life transition: realizes “The Dream” is a joke. Shift to time-since-death”
Baumrind’s Parenting styles
Based on responsivity (acceptance and warmth) and demandingness (control)
Authoritarian - lo responsivity, hi demanding —> kids irritable, aggressive, mistrusting, low responsibility, low self-esteem, poor academics
Authoritative - rational control, hi responsivity. Rely on inductive discipline (kid think about others feelings). —> assertive, socially responsible, achievement oriented, self esteem, self confident high grades
Permissive - hi responsivity but low demanding. —> immature, impulsive, self-centered, easily frustrated, low achievement and independence
Rejecting-neglecting: low on responsivity and demandingness and hostile. —> low self esteem, impulsive, moody, aggressive. Juvenile delinquents (low warmth, supervision, inconsistent or harsh punishment)
Self-awareness
Understanding that one is separate from others. Develops during age 2.
Physical self-recognition - 18 months in mirror/ pictures
Self-description - 19-30 months- neutral and evaluative terms to describe self
Emotional responses to wrongdoing- sense of conscienceness or adverse reaction to caregivers disapproval
2-6: concrete physical traits
6-10: comperencies (I’m good at…)
10-12: personality traits and emotions directed at selves
Adolescence: abstract, referring to inner thoughts feelings, sometimes inconsistencies
Gender identity development
3 yrs: label selves and others as boy or girl and understand gene roles
Psychodynamic: gender identity happens when phallic stage crisis is resolved and child identifies with same sex parent
Social learning theory: results from reinforcement and observational learning
multidimensional model: 5 components- membership knowledge, gender typicality, gender contentedness, gender conformity, intergroup bias (girls rule boys drool)
Kohlberg’s stages of gender development.
Cognitive development theory of gender identity
2/3 years: gender identity (male or female)
3/4 years: gender stability gender stable over time- boys to men; girls to women
6/7 years: gender constancy- people can’t change genders by altering external appearance
Bem’s gender schema theory
Acquisition of gender identity to cognitive and social learning
Children develop conceptual frameworks (schemas) of masculinity and femininity
Androgyny
Gender identity has greater impact than sex on self-esteem
Androgyny and to a lesser extent masculinity associated with higher self esteem
Androgyny —> greater flexibility in difficult situations, higher life satisfaction, greater comfort with sexuality
Race and race preference
6 months: aware of race differences
3/4 years: label racial groups
10 years: understand social connotations of race differences
Same race preference decreases for Black children from age 3 to 6.
Adolescent Identity statuses
Crisis and commitment
Identity diffusion: no to both
Identity foreclosure: no cross but commitment (imposed by same sex parent or other)
Identity moratorium: crisis but no commitment (experiences confusion, discontent,rebelliousness)
Identity achievement: crisis resolved and commitment
Gilligan’s Relational crisis
At 11 or 12 girls experience a relational crisis where they want to be the perfect good woman and disconnect from themselves in order to maintain relationships with others
Loss of voice—> drop in grades, lower self esteem, risk for psychological problems
Boys experience a similar relational crisis in early childhood
Children’s understanding of death
No functionality, irreversibility, and universality
2-5: view death as temporary and reversible (experience it as abandonment)
5-9: develop understanding of irreversibility
10+: no functionality, irreversible, universality
Fear about death greatest among middle-aged folk
Anxiety about death lower among people with high self-esteem, sense of mastery, sense of purpose.
Stages of grief (DABDA)
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
Bowlby - Theory of attachment
Influenced by ethology and evolutionary theory
Critical period exposure during the first year results in a bond that ensure the infant’s survival
Internal working model- a mental representation of of self and others that influence future relationships
Signs of attachment
6 mons: Social referencing- looking to caregiver to know how to respond to situations (visual cliff studies)
Separation anxiety begins at 6-8 months to peak at 14-18 mons, then declines
8-10 mon peak to 24 mon: Stranger anxiety, when caregiver not around or doesn’t respond well to stranger
Ainsworth - Strange situation
Patterns of attachment
Secure- baby explores, cries upon moms absence and seeks her comfort upon return (parent is emotionally sensitive and responsive to baby’s cues)
Insecure Ambivalent/Resistant - babies are ambivalent, distressed when mom absent, and ambivalent upon return (parent is moody and inconsistent)
Insecure Avoidant- no interaction with mother, no distress upon leaving and no contact upon return. (Parent either impatient and unresponsive or provides child with too much stimulation)
Disorganized/Disoriented - fear of caregivers, show dazed or confused facial expressions, greet mon upon return but then turn away.
80% of abused children fall here.
Harlow - Rhesus monkey contact comfort
Babies like soft and warmth even moreso that food
Prolonged separation
Before 3 months—> kid OK
9 mon+ —> moderate to severe reactions, feeding/sleep problems, social withdrawal, stranger anxiety, rejection or clinging to new mother
Institutionalization—> Anaclitic depression, developmental delays, unresponsiveness and withdrawal
Children who are adopted by 6 are able to develop close bonds with parents
Adult attachment interview
Association between adult attachment style to their parents and their children’s attachment to them
Autonomous- coherent description of childhood—> kids secure attachment in strange situations
Dismissing - positive description of childhood memories that are contradicted —> kids avoidant
Preoccupied - angry or confused or passively preoccupied with parent —> kids resistant/ambivalent
Divorce and age outcomes
Divorce and gender
Sleeper effect in girls
Preschool children impacted most immediately bc they blame themselves and fear being abandoned
Long term consequences worse for children 6-8 —> worry they will get divorced later on
In no distress findings on boys vs girls.
Divorce and parenting
Mothers are usually socially isolated, lonely, experience decline income
Mothers uncommunicative, impatient, and less warm and loving and more authoritarian.
Noncustodial fathers are indulgent and permissive
Remarriage and child age
Children around 9 respond worse to remarriage than older or younger kids bc of problems characteristic during this age, autonomy and sexuality
Relationships with siblings
Young children: prosocial and play oriented
Middle childhood: closeness/conflict and cooperation/competition - rivalry worse for kids near the same age and who have inconsistent discipline
Adolescents: distant, less emotionally intense and friction declines as they see each other as equals
Poor relationship in childhood results in worse one in adulthood
Stages of friendship
4-7 years: playmates
8-10 years: friends are a source of help, trust and support
11 years: intimacy and loyalty
Socioemotional selectivity theory
Social motives related to perception of time as being limited or unlimited
Time unlimited—> future oriented, preference for new or novel social partners
Limited time —> present oriented, emotionally close, greater partner selectivity and fewer partners
Peer pressure
Peer influence is greater for prosocial behavior than antisocial ones EXCEPT at age 14/15
Compliance to peer pressure declines over time except related to smoking, drinking and sex
Peers have more influence than parents EXCEPT on values, educational and career goals
Mother working and child outcomes
Working mom —> more egalitarian gender role concepts
High SES families —> boys with lower achievement scores
Lower SES —> Boys with higher cognitive development
Teacher expectations
Teachers respond more to boys in helpful and non helpful ways
Boys praised for intellectual accomplishments and task related behaviors
Girls praised for effort, cooperation and dependent behaviors, which may explain why girls feel their lack of achievement is due to lack of ability
Compensatory preschool or head start
Gains in IQ do not persist
But there are long term gains in attitudes towards school, no failing a grade, graduating high school and going to college
Montessori method
Learning comes from perception- hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, tasting
Mahler - early child development
1st month- infantile autism
2-4m- symbiotic phase-
4-5m- separation- individuation
4 Subphases
- 5-10m - differentiation/ Stranger danger
- 10-16 months- practicing - separation anxiety
- 16-24 m: Rapproachment-
- 24-36m: Object constancy or permanence
