Life in the Emerging Urban Society (1840-1914)

Question 1

realism a dominant movement

Answer 1

c. 1840-1890s. it was a literary movement that, in contrast to Romanticism, stressed the depiction of life as it actually was. it pursued the typical and commonplace. many taboo subjects were explored. the movement began in France.

Question 2

Cholera epidemic and first public health law in Britain

Answer 2

in 1848.

Question 3

Modernization of Paris

Answer 3

c. 1850-1870

Question 4

working classes’ conditions improve

Answer 4

from 1850-1914.

Question 5

Pasteur begins studying fermentation and develops pasteurization

Answer 5

starts investigating in 1854 and develops pasteurization (heating to slow down the bacterial activity) in 1863.

Question 6

Development of germ theory

Answer 6

Developed by Louis Pasteur from 1854-1870. the idea that diseases were caused by the spread of living organisms that could be controlled.

Question 7

“On the Origin of Species by the Means of Natural Selection”

Answer 7

published by C. Darwin in 1859. He built on Anaximander’s and J.B. Lamarck’s work. he went on a 5-year scientific trip to Latin America from 1831 onwards and collected numerous samples. Darwin concluded that all life had gradually evolved from a common ancestral origin in an unending struggle for survival.

Question 8

Completion of London sewer system

Answer 8

in 1865.

Question 9

Mendeleev creates the periodic table

Answer 9

in 1869. it codified the rules of chemistry.

Question 10

Second Industrial Revolution, decline of birthrate in Europe

Answer 10

from 1880-1913.

Question 11

“The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism”

Answer 11

Published by Max Weber in 1890. the most famous sociologist of his time.

Question 12

Electric streetcar introduced in Europe

Answer 12

in 1890s.

Question 13

industry and growth of cities

Answer 13

cities were “walking cities,” meaning that very many people had to live close together to be within walking distance of all the necessities. industrial growth led to even more overcrowding. in England early 19th century cities used every ounce of land so that there ere no parks and open areas. row houses without yards were typical. living was unhealthy and unsanitary, with open sewers and drains flowing in the streets. the government reaction to such conditions was slow.

Question 14

the advent of the public health movement

Answer 14

Edwin Chadwick applied utilitarianism in his law reforms. he collected detailed reports from Poor Law officials and published the findings in 1842. This report became the basis for the first public health law in 1848. this movement spread to the mainland and US and government’s accepted at least limited responsibility for public health.

Question 15

utilitarianism

Answer 15

the idea of Jeremy Bentham that social policies should promote the “greatest good for the greatest number”

Question 16

the bacterial revolution

Answer 16

in the 1840s and ’50s the first doctors noted that disease happened through direct contact with filth. In the mid 1870s Robert Koch and his colleagues developed pure cultures of harmful bacteria and described their life cycles. following that mainly German researchers identified many organisms responsible for different diseases. many effective vaccines were developed but antibiotics cam out in the middle of the 20th century.
Joseph Lister in 1865 developed the chemical disinfectant and in the 1880s german surgeons started practicing sterilizing.

Question 17

improvements in urban planning

Answer 17

France during Napoleon III took the lead. Baron G, Haussmann was hired to modernize the city. old buildings were destroyed to build straight boulevards and built new, more roomy housing. small neighborhood parks and open spaces sprang up everywhere in addition to the bigger ones. sewers and aqueducts were developed to be more effective.

Question 18

public transportation

Answer 18

in the 1870s many areas authorized private companies to operate horse-drawn streetcars. in the 1890s the electric streetcar was taken into use. thanks to this the cities expanded and became less congested. suburban commuting was born.

Question 19

the distribution of income

Answer 19

by 1850s real wages were rising for the masses. this, however, did not mean better conditions and equality between classes. the middle class was quite small at the time and most people were living in relative poverty.

Question 20

the people and occupations of the middle classes

Answer 20

moderately successful industrialists and merchants, professionals in law, business, medicine. 
the middle classes occupied the jobs that demanded specialized knowledge and education (engineers, architects, chemists, accountants, surveyors, managers). the number of white collar employees rose, too. they were on the same economic level as some working class people but due to their ideals of upwards social mobility they bunched together with the middle class.

Question 21

middle-class culture and values

Answer 21

lifestyle preferences united the different levels of middle classes. much money was spent on food and entertainment (books, music, travel). meat was popular among the middle class. dinner parties, servant(s) were normal demarcations of a middle class family. they also rented very nice homes. they, too, built country/beach houses for weekend/holiday usage. outward appearances were important, especially clothes (for women). the middle class followed a strict code of behaviour, manners and morality.

Question 22

the people and occupations of the working classes

Answer 22

people whose livelihood depended mainly on physical labor and had no domestic servants. this class was even less unified and homogenous than the middle classes. many semi-skilled groups (mostly factory workers) emerged between the skilled and unskilled ones (day laborers) . labor aristocracy had to work hard to keep that position as many semi-skilled workers came to replace them. the upper working class adopted distinctive values. they believed in morality and economic improvement.

Question 23

labor aristocracy

Answer 23

the highly skilled workers, such as factory foremen and construction bosses, who made up about 15% of the working classes from about 1850-1914.

Question 24

sweated industries

Answer 24

poorly paid handicraft production, often carried out by married women paid by the piece and working at home.

Question 25

working-class leisure and religion

Answer 25

(social) drinking, commercialized spectator sports, music halls, vaudeville theaters were very liked past-times.
while religion remained important, Churches as conservative institutions were not liked. religion also underwent a process called feminization.

Question 26

middle-class marriage and courtship

Answer 26

by 1850s the middle-class couple had to follow an idealized model: meet, court, fall in love, marry. parents, chaperones, general public would guard the boundaries between proper and improper during courtship. engagements were publicly announced but intimacy was under strict limitations even then. 
marriage was often mixed-age due to the norm of men marrying when they were financially stable and able to support a family.

Question 27

companionate marriage

Answer 27

marriage based on romantic love and middle-class family values that became increasingly dominant in the 2nd half of the 19th century.

Question 28

middle- and working-class sexuality

Answer 28

there was a double standard in sexual relations which paralleled the gender inequalities. men were seen as aggressively sexual while women were supposed to be chaste and pure. men were expected to have some sexual experience when entering a marriage while for women this was unheard of.
among workers premarital sex was more common and acceptable.

Question 29

prostitution

Answer 29

in the late 19th century prostitution was legal in most of Europe. young working-class women worked as prostitutes to earn extra money. the clientele consisted mostly of lower-class men, soldiers, sailors. while it was financially independent work, it was very dangerous. 
among the working-class prostitution was a stage of life not permanent employment. 
during and after the Contagious Diseases Act (1884-1886) prostitutes were harassed, embarrassed and the work fell more and more under male hands.

Question 30

separate spheres and the importance of homemaking

Answer 30

women became increasingly connected to the home and men to work, a trend more noticeable among the higher classes. the woman dominated private sphere as a mother, wife and homemaker and the man dominated public sphere as a husband, wage earner and family provider. the house was turned into a domestic refuge, center of love, and privacy. 
working-class wives tried to do the same but it was harder. additionally, men rather spent time out after work. alcoholism and domestic violence were common vices in working-class families.

Question 31

child rearing

Answer 31

less children were born to a family and forming early emotional connections and making sacrifices for the infant became increasingly important among the well-to-do families. many specialized books on child rearing and infant hygiene were published. breastfeeding became normal again, fewer illegitimate children were abandoned, practice of swaddling disappeared. more concern and care was also shown to older children and adolescents.
some of this meant that children were under more pressure from their parents (unintentionally).

Question 32

the feminist movement

Answer 32

married women were subordinated to their husbands by law and lacked many basic legal rights. due to the discrimination women face in education, employment and rights, some of them rebelled against it.
women worked in organizations, campaigning for equal legal rights, education, employment opportunities, vote.
in 1882 english married women gained full property rights and gradually women found more work.

Question 33

the feminist movement

Answer 33

married women were subordinated to their husbands by law and lacked many basic legal rights. due to the discrimination women face in education, employment and rights, some of them rebelled against it.
women worked in organizations, campaigning for equal legal rights, education, employment opportunities, vote.
in 1882 english married women gained full property rights and gradually women found more work. the vote was received only in 1919.

Question 34

the triumph of science in industry

Answer 34

from the 1830s onward, there is a noticeable growth in fundamental scientific discoveries. the theory was also transformed into material improvements that was not the case during the scientific revolution.
everyday experiences and articles stressed the importance of science to the popular mind. scientific methods gained undisputed prestige.

Question 35

thermodynamics

Answer 35

a branch of physics built onNewton’s laws of mechanics that investigated the relationship between heat and mechanical energy. German chemical companies became the best of the time (dies).

Question 36

Second industrial revolution

Answer 36

the burst of industrial creativity and technological innovation that promoted strong economic growth in the last third of the 19th century.

Question 37

evolution

Answer 37

the idea, applied by thinkers in many fields, that stresses gradual change and continuous adjustment.

Question 38

social Darwinism

Answer 38

a body of thought drawn from the ideas of Darwin that applied the theory of biological evolution to human affairs and saw the human race as driven by an unending economic struggle that would determine the survival of the fittest.

Question 39

the modern university and social sciences

Answer 39

by 1880s major universities had been modernized and proffesionalized. faculty of social and human sciences took its rightful place among the hard sciences. sociology emerged as a leading social science.
some famous sociologists were M. Weber, E. Durkheim, F. Tönnies, G. Le Bond