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Science for Medicine > Life at the Cellular Level > Flashcards

Life at the Cellular Level Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is a cell?

A

A cell is the fundamental unit of human life.

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2
Q

Why are cells small?

A

Increased surface area:volume ratio.

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3
Q

What is the role of the cytoskeleton?

A

Structural support, shape, and facilitation of movement.

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4
Q

What are the elements of the cytoskeleton?

A

Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules

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5
Q

What is the difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells?

A

Prokaryotic- no nuclear membrane or membrane-bound structures
Eukaryotic- membrane-bound organelles

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6
Q

What can multipotent cells differentiate into?

A

Cells within a specific tissue.

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7
Q

What can pluripotent cells differentiate into?

A

Any type of somatic cell.

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8
Q

What are totipotent cells and where are they found?

A

Found in early embryo- can differentiate into any type of cell.

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9
Q

Describe cellular differentiation.

A

Cellular differentiation is the process by which cells divide and express different genes which results in the alteration of structure and subsequent behaviours.

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10
Q

Why are cancer cells different to normal cells?

A

Uncontrolled cell division- do not respond to growth regulation.

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11
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

Programmed cell death

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12
Q

What is the cell membrane?

A

Selective barrier which controls entry/exit of substances.

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13
Q

What does the cell membrane consist of?

A

Phospholipid bilayer structure- hydrophobic/hydrophilic interactions. Amphipathic.

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14
Q

What can permeate the cell membrane?

A

Water/lipid-soluble molecules.

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15
Q

What does cell adhesion involve?

A

Junctions found in the epithelia that can link/form barriers to substances.

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16
Q

What is the function of the mitochondria?

A

Site of aerobic respiration; produces ATP.

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17
Q

What is the function of the nucleus?

A

DNA storage.

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18
Q

What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Has ribosomes attached, involved in protein synthesis.

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19
Q

What is the function of the ribosomes?

A

Protein synthesis

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20
Q

What is the function of lysosomes?

A

Contain degradative enzymes in membrane.

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21
Q

What are the 4 routes of cell signalling?

A

Contact-dependent
Panacrine (non-hormones)
Synaptic
Endocrine (hormones)

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22
Q

What are cell surface projections composed of?

A

Microtubules

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23
Q

Describe cilia.

A

Short; may present- move with swift power stroke and

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24
Q

Describe flagella.

A

Longer- usually 1/2 present- movement is snake-like.

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25
Q

What is the underlying root of functional diversity?

A

Molecular simplicity.

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26
Q

How many elements are part of the structure of organisms?

A

10- consumed in diet.

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27
Q

What elements make up 90% of humans?

A

HONC

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28
Q

Why does carbon form the basis of many biomolecules?

A

Bonding versatility- can form stable bonds with FON atoms.

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29
Q

What are functional groups?

A

Groups on molecules that can allow classification and give rise to function.

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30
Q

What is polarity and why is it critical to function?

A

Polarity is a measure of electronegativity between atoms- it affects function because it alters reactivity.

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31
Q

What is a chiral molecule?

A

Assymetric centre with different attachments.

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32
Q

What are the 5 fundamental reactions of life?

A 
Redox 
Formation of carbon bonds 
Internal rearrangements 
Group transfers 
Condensation/hydrolysis
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33
Q

What happens in redox reactions?

A

OILRIG- Oxidation loses electrons, reduction gains them.

34
Q

What happens during carbon-bond reactions?

A

Carbon is formed or broken- seen in the cleavage of glucose during glycolysis.

35
Q

What happens during internal rearrangement reactions?

A

Molecules are switched about in a rearranged formation. Seen in glycolysis.

36
Q

What happens during group transfers?

A

A group is transferred on to a molecule. Seen actively through phosphorylation.

37
Q

What happens during condensation/hydrolysis reactions?

A

Condensation involves a molecule being formed with the additional production of water.
Hydrolysis involves the breaking of a molecule using water.

38
Q

What are polysaccharides?

A

Polymers of glucose monomers linked by glycosidic bonds.

39
Q

What are polypeptides?

A

Initial sequences of amino acids.

40
Q

What are proteins?

A

Polymers of amino acids.

41
Q

What are nucleic acids and what do they consist of?

A

Polymers of nucleotides joined by 3’-5’ carbon bonds in the sugar-phosphate backbone.

42
Q

What do nucleotides consist with

A

Phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar and nitrogenous base.

43
Q

What allows the formation of the double helix structure in DNA?

A

Flat planar structure.

44
Q

What is Retrovir a nucleotide analogue of?

A

Thymine

45
Q

What are lipids?

A

Fats that usually contain one or more fatty acid.

46
Q

How are fats and oils separated?

A

Through saturation- determined by the spatial arrangement of carbon atoms within their structures.

47
Q

Why do forms of energy all interconnect?

A

Energy is constantly transferred between them.

48
Q

What do the Laws of Thermodynamics govern?

A

Energy changes.

49
Q

What is the First Law of Thermodynamics?

A

Energy can be converted from one form to another but the total energy of the system (universe) will remain the same.

50
Q

What is the Second Law of Thermodynamics?

A

All energy transformations ultimately lead to increased disorder in the universe.

51
Q

Why can it be argued that cells defy the Second Law of Thermodynamics?

A

Because cellular processes involve energy changes yet this leads to less disorder within the cell system.

52
Q

Why do cells not defy the Second Law of Thermodynamics?

A

They

53
Q

Why do cells not defy the Second Law of Thermodynamics?

A

They live in open systems- not in isolation. The chemical reactions that cells use to maintain order release heat and increase entropy in the extracellular environment.

54
Q

What is Gibbs free energy?

A

Useful energy.

55
Q

When can a reaction be spontaneous in a system?

A

When a system gives up energy (water runs downhill spontaneously, giving up potential energy as it goes), or when it becomes more random and increases in energy.

56
Q

How do cells carry out thermodynamically unfeasible reactions?

A

Reaction coupling.

57
Q

How do organisms overcome the incompatibility of G=0 with life?

A

By carrying out reactions on a multistep basis using pathways.

58
Q

What does using a series of reactions maintain?

A

A dynamic steady state.

59
Q

How does free energy work in metabolism?

A

Free energy flows between anabolic and catabolic processes.

60
Q

What do metabolic pathways involve?

A

Enzymes.

61
Q

How do spontaneous reactions interact with equilibrium?

A

Spontaneous reactions move towards equilibrium but never reach it.

62
Q

What are intermediary metabolites?

A

Metabolites between stages; tend to be present in multiple metabolic pathways.

63
Q

How can ATP produce free energy?

A

Conversion through hydrolysis to ADP + inorganic phosphate. Can drive thermodynamically unfavourable reactions.

64
Q

What are some common biochemical reactions?

A

PEP > Pyruvate

Phosphoryl transfers

65
Q

Why is food a huge source of energy?

A

Hydrogen atoms.

66
Q

What does water do in the body?

A

Bathes cells, allows transport of soluble substances, enables movement, participates in reactions and dissipates heat.

67
Q

What enables water to act as a solvent?

A

Polarity- the O-H bond creates an electronegative attraction and can lead to the development of hydrogen bonding in solvency.

68
Q

When is hydrogen bonding strongest?

A

When atoms lie in a straight line.

69
Q

Why are O2 and CO2 poor solvents in water?

A

No polarity.

70
Q

Are charged molecules soluble?

A

Yes.

71
Q

Are uncharged molecules soluble?

A

No.

72
Q

What are amphipathic molecules?

A

Molecules that contain both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts.

73
Q

Why is water partially charged?

A

OH- and H+ ions.

74
Q

What is Kw?

A

The ion product of water.

75
Q

How are strong acids/bases recognised?

A

They can dissociate fully in water.

76
Q

How are weak acids/bases recognised?

A

They only have partial dissociation in water.

77
Q

Are strong acids or weak acids more important in biological systems?

A

Weak acids- they have less dissociation which gives rise to more properties.

78
Q

How is pH maintained?

A

Buffer systems.

79
Q

What are buffers?

A

Buffers are solutions of weak acids that allow substances to remain at the same pH even when small amounts of acid or base are added.

80
Q

How do buffers work?

A

Double equilibrium system.

81
Q

What buffer system is present in cells?

A

Phosphate buffer system.

82
Q

What buffer system is present in blood/plasma?

A

HCO3 bicarbonate buffer system.

Science for Medicine (19 decks)

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