Lessons 15-17 Flashcards
digestive system
organ system that processes food, extract nutrients, and eliminates residue
what are the five stages of digestion
- ingestion
- digestion
- absorption
- compaction
- defecation
five stages of digestion: ingestion
selective intake of food
five stages of digestion: digestion
mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into a form usable by the body
five stages of digestion: absorption
uptake of nutrient molecules into the epithelial cells of the digestive tract and then into the blood and lymph
five stages of digestion: compaction
absorbing water and consolidating the indigestible residue into feces
five stages of digestion: defecation
elimination of feces
mechanical digestion
physical breakdown of food into smaller particles
what are two examples of mechanical digestion
- cutting and grinding action of the teeth
- churning action of stomach and small intestine
what is the purpose of mechanical digestion
exposes more food surface to digestive enzymes
chemical digestion
a series of hydrolysis reactions that breaks dietary macromolecules into their monomers
what carries out chemical digestion
digestive nzymes produced by salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, and small intestine
what are the four main breakdowns of that occur in chemical digestion
- polysaccharides to monosaccharides
- proteins into amino acids
- fats into monoglycerides and fatty acids
- nucleic acids into nucleotides
what nutrients are ingested as usable material
- vitamins
- amino acids
- minerals
- cholesterol
- water
what are the two subdivisions of the digestive system
- digestive tract
- accessory organs
digestive tract
- 30ft long muscular tube extending from mouth to anus
- mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine
accessory organs of the digestive system
- teeth
- tongue
- salivary glands
- liver
- gallbladder
- pancreas
what are the four layers of the digestive tract innermost to outermost?
- mucosa
- submucosa
- muscularis externa
- serosa
what are the three layers of the mucosa?
- epithelium
- lamina propria
- muscularis mucosae
what are the two layers of the muscularis external?
- inner circular layer
- outer longitudinal layer
what are the two layers of the serosa?
- areolar tissue
- mesothelium
mucosa of the digestive tract layers
lines the lumen
the epithelium of the mucosa what kind of tissue for most of the digestive tract
simple columnar
where is the mucosa not simple columnar tissue? what is it instead?
- mouth through esophagus and the lower anal canal
- stratified squamous
lamina propria of mucosa
loose connective tissue layer
muscularis mucosae of mucosa
- thin layer of smooth muscle
- improves efficiency of digestion and nutrient absorption
how does the muscularis mucosae improve digestion and nutrient absorption efficiency
tenses mucosa creating grooves and ridges that enhance surface area and contact with food
mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue
- abundant in the mucosa
- included lymphocytes and lymph nodes
submucosa of the digestive tract layers
- thicker layer of loose connective tissue
- contains blood and lymphatic vessels, a nerve plexus, and in some spots mucous secreting glands that dump lubricating mucus in the lumen
____ extends into the submucosa in some parts of the GI tract
MALT
inner circular smooth layer of the muscularis externa
- cells encircle tract
- responsible for the motility that propels food and residue through the tract
in some places the inner circular layer of the muscularis externa the layer thickens to form what?
valves that regulate the passage of material through the tract
serosa layer of the digestive tract is composed of
a thin layer of areolar tissue topped by simple squamous mesothelium
where does the serosa begin?
in the lower 3-4 cm of the esophagus and ends just before the rectum
some organs do not have serosa. what are they covered with instead?
adventitia
adventitia
fibrous connective tissue layer that binds and blends into adjacent organs
what parts of the digestive tract have adventitia rather than serosa
- pharynx
- most of the esophagus
- rectum
enteric plexus
nervous network in esophagus, stomach, and intestines that regulates digestive tract motility, secretion, and blood flow
innervation of the enteric plexus
- can function independently of CNS but it usually exerts influence on its action
- often considered part of ANS
- two networks of neurons
- sensory neurons included
what are the two networks of neurons that make up the enteric plexus
- submucosal plexus
- myenteric plexus
submucosal plexus
- found in submucosa
- controls glandular secretions of mucosa and movements of muscularis mucosae
myenteric plexus
- ganglia and nerve fibers between the two layers of the muscularis externa
- controls peristalsis and other contractions of muscularis externa
what do the sensory neurons in the enteric plexus do?
monitor tension in gut wall and conditions in lumen
mesentery
connective tissue sheet that suspends stomach and intestines from abdominal wall
the looseness of the mesentery allows for what to occur?
the stomach and intestines to undergo strenuous contractions with freedom of movement in the abdominal cavity
what are the functions of the mesentery (3)
- hold abdominal viscera in proper relationship to each other
- prevent intestines from becoming twisted and tangled by changes in body position and by their own contractions
- provide passage of blood/lymphatic vessels and nerves that supply the digestive tract
intraperitoneal
when an organ is enclosed by mesentery (serosa) on all sides
which organs are considered intraperitoneal?
- stomach
- liver
- jejunum and ileum of small intestine
- appendix, cecum, transverse, and sigmoid colon of large intestine
retroperitoneal
- when an organ lias against the posterior body wall and is covered by peritoneum on its anterior side only
- considered outside the peritoneal cavity
what organs are considered retroperitoneal?
- duodenum
- pancreas
- ascending colon, descending colon, and rectum of large intestine
what controls the motility and secretion of the digestive tract? (3)
neural, hormonal, and paracrine mechanisms
neural controls of the digestive tract (2)
- short (myenteric) reflexes
- long (vagovagal) reflexes
short (myenteric) reflexes
- stretch or chemical stim acts through myenteric plexus
- stims peristatic contractions of swallowing
long (vagovagal) reflexes
parasympathetic stim of digestive motility and secretion
what are two hormones secreted in the blood that stimulate parts of the digestive tract?
- gastrin
- secretin
paracrine secretions stimulate
nearby target cells
the mouth is aka (2)
- the oral cavity
- buccal cavity
functions of the mouth (4)
- ingestion
- taste and other sensory responses to food
- chewing and chemical digestion
- swallowing, speech, and respiration
functions of the cheek and lips (3)
- retain food and push it between the teeth
- involved in speech
- essential for sucking and blowing actions (suckling)
tongue
muscular, bulky, but agile and sensitive organ of the mouth
functions of the tongue
- manipulate food between teeth
- senses taste and texture of food
lingual papillae
bumps and projections that are the sites of most taste buds
body of the tongue
- anterior two-thirds of tongue
- occupies the oral cavity
root of the tongue
- posterior one third of the tongue
- occupies the oropharynx
vallate papillae
a v-shaped row of papillae that mark the boundary between the body and root of the tongue
intrinsic muscles of the tongue
- entirely contained in tongue
- produce subtle tongue movements of speech
extrinsic muscles of tongue
- with attachments outside of tongue
- produce stronger movements of food manipulation
lingual glands
- serous and mucous glands within tongue amid the extrinsic muscles
- secrete a portion of the saliva
lingual tonsils contained where?
in the root of the tongue
the palate functions (2)
- separates oral cavity from nasal cavity
- makes it possible to breathe while chewing food
hard palate
anterior portion that is supported by the palatine processes of the maxillae and the palatine bones
palatine rugae
transverse ridges that help the tongue hold and manipulate food
soft palate
posterior to hard palate with more spongy texture
uvula
- conical medial projection visible at the rear of the mouth
- helps retain food in the mouth until one is ready to swallow
how many adult teeth are there?
32
teeth are collectively called
the dentition
functions of the teeth (4)
- function to break food into smaller pieces
- makes food easier to swallow
- exposes more surface area for action of digestive enzymes
- speedy chemical digestion
mastication
- breaks food into smaller pieces to be swallowed and exposes more surface to digestive enzymes
- first step in mechanical digestion
how does mastication occur? (3)
- food stims oral receptors that trigger an involuntary chewing reflex
- tongue and other muscles in oral cavity manipulate food
- masseter and temporalis elevate the lower teeth to crush food
functions of saliva (6)
- moistens mouth
- begins starch and fat digestion
- cleanses teeth
- inhibits bacterial growth
- dissolves molecules so they can stim the taste buds
- moistens food and binds it together into a soft mass to aid in swallowing
saliva is a _____ solution of _____ water
- hypotonic
- 97-99.5%
what is the pH of saliva?
6.8-7
what are the solutes found in saliva? (6)
- mucus
- electrolytes
- lysozymes
- IgA
- salivary amylase
- lingual lipase
mucus in saliva
binds and lubricates a mass of food and aids in swallowing
electrolytes of saliva
slats of Na+, K+, Cl-, phosphate, and bicarbonate
lysozymes of saliva
enzyme that kills bacteria
IgA of saliva
antimicrobial antibody
salivary amylase of saliva
enzyme that begins starch digestion in the mouth
lingual lipase of saliva
enzyme that begins fat digestion in the mouth (mainly after food is swallowed)
what are the two types of salivary glands
- intrinsic (minor) salivary glands
- extrinsic (major) salivary glands
intrinsic (minor) salivary glands
- small glands dispersed amid other oral tissues
- secrete saliva at constant rate whether eating or not
extrinsic (major) salivary glands
three pairs of larger, more discrete organs connected to oral cavity by ducts
what are the three major salivary glands?
- parotid glands
- submandibular glands
- sublingual glands
parotid glands are located where?
beneath the skin anterior to the earlobe
submandibular glands are located where?
halfway along the body of the mandible
sublingual glands are located where?
in the floor of the mouth
the sublingual glands have several ducts that empty where?
posterior to the papilla of the submandibular duct
extrinsic salivary glands secrete about ___ of saliva a day
1-1.5 liters
______ respond to signals generated by presence of food
salivary nuclei in medulla oblongata and pons
salivary nuclei are excited by what?
tactile, pressure, and taste receptors
salivary nuclei receive input from higher brain centers. explain why.
odor, sight, or thought of food stims salivation
salivary glands send signals by way of what kind of fibers via what two nerves.
- autonomic fiber
- facial and glossopharyngeal nerves
parasympathetic fibers of the salivary nuclei
stim the glands to produce an abundance of thin, enzyme-rich saliva
sympathetic fibers of salivary nuclei
stims the glands to produce less, and thicker saliva with more mucus
pharynx
- muscular funnel connecting oral cavity to esophagus and nasal cavity to larynx
- where digestive and respiratory tracts intersect
what are the two layers of muscle within the pharynx
- deep longitudinal skeletal muscle
- superficial circular skeletal muscle
what is the function of the superficial circular muscle layer of the pharynx
forms the pharyngeal constrictors that force food downward during swallowing
how many pharyngeal constrictors are there and what are they called?
- 3
- superior, middle, inferior
when not swallowing what is the inferior constrictor doing? this constrictor is aka
- contracted to exclude air from the esophagus
- upper esophageal sphincter
esophagus
straight muscular tube 25-30 cm long between pharynx and stomach
the esophagus extends from
pharynx to cardiac orifice of stomach passing through esophageal hiatus in diaphragm
lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
- inferior end of esophagus
- prevents stomach contents from regurgitating into the esophagus and protects esophageal mucosa form erosive stomach acid
heartburn
burning sensation produced by acid reflux into the esophagus
deglutition
- complex action involving over 22 muscles in the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus
- swallowing
- coordinated by swallowing center
swallowing center
- pair of nuclei in medulla oblongata
- communicates with muscles of the pharynx and esophagus
what are the three phases of swallowing
- oral phase
- pharyngeal phase
- esophageal phase
oral phase of swallowing
- voluntary control
- tongue forms food bolus by pressing food into hard palate and the pushes it into laryngopharnyx
pharyngeal phase of swallowing
- involuntary control
- palate, tongue, vocal cords, and epiglottis block the oral and nasal cavities and airway while pharyngeal constrictors push the bolus into the esophagus
what is the role of the epiglottis in the oral phase of swallowing
it tips posteriorly to allow food to go into the laryngopharynx without traveling into the larynx
what is the purpose of the pharyngeal phase of swallowing
prevents food and drink from reentering mouth or entering the nasal cavity
esophageal phase of swallowing
peristalsis drives bolus downward and relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter admits it into the stomach
peristalsis
circular muscle constricts above bolus, relaxes below bolus
when food and liquid is swallowed upright what happens
drops through esophagus by gravity faster than peristalsis can keep up with it
stomach
muscular sac in upper left abdominal cavity immediately inferior to diaphragm
functions of the stomach
- food storage
- mechanically breaks up food particles, liquefies the food, and begins chemical digestion of proteins and fat
chyme
- the result of the stomach breaking down materials
- acidic, soupy mixture of semi-digested food that passes on to the small intestine
what are the four regions of the stomach
- cardiac part
- fundic region (fundus)
- body
- pyloric part
cardiac part of stomach
- small area within about 3 cm of the cardiac orifice
- entry point of material from esophagus
fundic regions (fundus) of the stomach
dome superior to the esophageal attachment
body of the stomach
makes up greatest part of distal to cardiac orifice
pyloric part of stomach
- narrower pouch at inferior end
- subdivided into the antrum and the pyloric canal that terminates at the pylorus
pylorus
narrow passage to duodenum
pyloric sphincter
- ring of smooth muscle around pylorus
- regulates the passage of chyme into the duodenum
describe the mucosa of the stomach
- covered with simple columnar epithelium
- apical region are filler with mucin
how does mucin become mucus
swells with water
what do the mucosa and the submucosa look like when the stomach is full? empty?
- flat when full
- have longitudinal gastric rugae
the muscularis externa of the stomach has ___ layers. everywhere else has ___ layers.
- three
- two
what are the three layers of the muscularis externa in the stomach
- outer longitudinal
- middle circular
- inner oblique
what cell types can be found in the stomach mucosa?
- mucous cells
- regenerative (stem) cells
- parietal cells
- chiefs cells
- enteroendocrine cells
mucous cells in stomach
secrete mucus
regenerative (stem) cells of stomach
divide rapidly and produce continual supply of new cells to replace cells that die
parietal cells of stomach
secrete hydrochloric acid, intrinsic factor, and ghrelin
ghrelin
stimulates hunger feeling
chief cells of the stomach
- most numerous cell type
- secrete gastric lipase and pepsinogen
enteroendocrine cells of stomach
secrete hormones and paracrine messengers that regulate digestion
gastric pits of the gastric mucosa
depressions in gastric mucosa lined with the same columnar epithelium as the surface
gastric juice
- 2-3L per day produced by the gastric glands
- mainly a mixture of water, HCl and pepsin
functions of the HCl (3)
- activates pepsin and lingual lipase
- breaks up connective tissues and plant cell walls helping to liquify food and form chyme
- contributes to innate immunity by destroying most ingested pathogens
pepsin
- released by chief cells as the inactive form pepsinogen
- digests dietary proteins into shorter peptides
how is pepsin activated
HCl removes some of the amino acids from pepsinogen to form pepsin
autocatalytic effect in pepsin
as some pepsin is formed it converts more pepsinogen into more pepsin
the digestion of proteins is incomplete in the stomach. where does it finish?
in the small intestine
gastric lipase
- released from chief cells
- plays a minor role with lingual lipase in the digestion of dietary fats
- digests 10-15% of dietary fats in stomach
where is most all fat digested?
small intestine
intrinsic factor
- glycoprotein secreted by parietal cells
- essential to absorption of B12 by small intestine
how does intrinsic factor help in the absorption of B12?
binds B12 and then intestinal cells absorb this complex by receptor-mediated endocytosis
B12 is needed to synthesize
hemoglobin
pernicious anemia
anemia caused by a deficiency of B12
____ is the only indispensable function of the stomach
secretion of intrinsic factor
will digestion continue if the stomach is removed?
yes but B12 supplements will be needed
most of the chemical messengers that are released by cells in the gastric and pyloric glands are…
hormones that enter blood and stim distant cells
gut brain peptide
- peptides produced in both the digestive tract and the CNS
- most of the hormones that enter blood as chemical messengers
what are the gut-brain peptides? (6)
- substance P
- vasoactive peptide (VIP)
- secretin
- gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
- cholecystokinin (CCK)
- neuropeptide Y (NPY)
what is the mechanism of gastric motility (4)
- food stims mechanoreceptors in pharynx and transmits signals in medulla during swallowing
- swallowing center of medulla signals stomach to relax
- vagus nerve relays message form medulla and activates receptive-relaxation response in stomach
- soon rhythm of peristalsis starts in stomach
what controls peristalsis in stomach
enteric pacemaker cells in longitudinal layer of muscularis externa
describe peristalsis in the stomach
- ring of constriction every 20 sec and becomes stronger contraction at pyloric part
- eventually very strong after 30 min
what is the function of peristalsis in the stomach
churn the food to mix it with gastric juice
____ acts as a pump that breaks up semi-digested food and prepares it for the intestine
thick muscularis of antrum
only about ___ of chyme is released into the duodenum at a time
3 ml
why is there such a small amount of chyme released into the duodenum
- neutralize the stomach acid
- digest nutrients little by little
if duodenum is overfilled what happens?
gastric motility is inhibited
a typical meal emptied form stomach in ___
4 hours
what can cause a meal to empty from the stomach quicker? slower?
- less time if meal is more liquid
- a high fat meal can take as long as 6 hours
vomiting
- forceful ejection of stomach and intestinal contents form the mouth
- usually preceded by nausea and retching
retching
thoracic expansion and abdominal contraction creating a pressure difference that dilates the esophagus and forced open the upper esophageal sphincter
vomiting involves the ___ in the medulla
emetic center
emetic center
- in the medulla
- integrates strong abdominal contractions combined with reverse peristalsis of gastric antrum and duodenum
vomiting is indued by (4)
- overstretching of stomach or duodenum
- chemical irritants such as alcohol and bacterial toxins
- visceral trauma
- intense pain or psychological and sensory stim
____ and ____ partially digest protein and lesser amounts of starch and fat in the stomach
salivary and gastric enzyme
most digestion and nearly all absorption occurs where in the body?
small intestine
while the stomach does not absorb significant amounts of nutrients what does it absorb?
aspirin and some lipid-soluble drugs
alcohol is absorbed mainly by
small intestine
what does the intoxicating feeling of alcohol consumption depend on?
how rapidly the stomach is emptied
what three ways is the stomach protected from the acidic environment it creates
- mucous coat
- tight junctions
- epithelial cell replacement
mucous coat as a way to protect the stomach
thick highly alkaline mucus resists action of acid and enzymes
tight junctions as a way to protect the stomach
- between epithelial cells
- prevent gastric juice from seeping between them and digesting deeper tissue
epithelial cell replacement as a way to protect the stomach
- cells live only 3-6 days
- sloughed off in chyme and digested with food
- replaced rapidly by cell division in gastric pits
what happens if the protective measures of the stomach are broken down
inflammation and peptic ulcer
gastritis
inflammation of the stomach and can lead to peptic ulcer
peptic ulcer
pepsin and HCl eroding the stomach wall
most ulcers are caused by
acid resistant bacteria helicobacter pylori
ulcers causes by H pylori can be treated with
antibiotic and pepto
risk factors for ulcer development
- psychological factors
- hypersecretion of acid
- smoking
- use of aspirin and other nonmedical anti-inflammatory drugs
when there is a hypersecretion of acid in the stomach to cause ulcers ___ is sometimes involved
pepsin
gastric secretion and motility are regulated by
nervous and endocrine system
gastric secretion and motility increase ____
when food is eaten
what are the three phases of gastric activity
- cephalic phase
- gastric phase
- intestinal phase
cephalic phase of gastric activity
- stomach being controlled by brain
- vagus nerve stims gastric secretion even before food is swallowed (smell, thought, sight)
gastric phase of gastric activity
- stomach controlling itself
- food stretches stomach and activates myenteric and vagovagal reflexes which stims gastric secretion
intestinal phase of gastric activity
- stomach being controlled by small intestine
- intestinal gastrin briefly stims stomach but then secretin CCK, and enterogastric reflex inhibit gastric secretion/motility
___ and ___ also stim acid and enzyme secretion in the gastric phase of gastric activity
histamine and gastrin
___ suppresses gastric activity while ____ of the stomach is now inhibited
- sympathetic nerve fibers
- vagal (parasympathetic) stim
what is the nervous system work of the cephalic phase?
- sensory and mental inputs converge on hypothalamus
- hypothalamus relays signals to medulla
- vagus nerve fibers from medulla stim enteric nervous system to stomach stim gastric secretion
40% of stomach acid secretion occurs in _____ of gastric activity
cephalic phase
____ of gastric secretion and ___ of acid secretion occur in the gastric phase of gastric activity
- two thirds
- one third
what are the enzymes released during the gastric phase of gastric activity?
- pepsinogen
- intrinsic factor
what are the two ways ingested food stims gastric activity?
- by stretching the stomach
- by increasing the pH of the inside of the stomach
gastric secretion is stim by three chemicals
- acetylcholine
- histamine
- gastrin
acetylcholine is released by what?
secreted by parasym nerve fibers of both reflexes
histamine is released by what?
a paracrine secretion from enteroendocrine cells in the gastric glands
gastrin is released by what?
a hormone produced by the enteroendocrine G cells in pyloric glands
ACh, histamine, and gastrin stim what cells to release what?
- parietal cells
- secrete HCl and intrinsic factor
gastrin and ACh stim what cells to release what?
- chiefs cells
- secrete pepsinogen
what is the role of the duodenum in the intestinal phase of gastric activity
- duodenum responds to arriving chyme and moderates gastric activity through hormones and nervous reflexes
- initially enhances gastric secretion but soon inhibits it
how does the duodenum inhibit gastric secretion? (3)
- stretching of duodenum accentuates vagovagal reflex that stim stomach
- peptides and amino acids in chyme stim G cells of duodenum to secrete intestinal gastrin
- soon acids and fats trigger enterogastric reflex
enterogastric reflex
duodenum sends inhibitory signals to stomach by way of enteric nervous system
duodenum signals medulla to ___ and stim sympathetic neurons to ____
- inhibit vagal nuclei
- slow stomach activity
what happens when duodenum inhibit vagal nuclei
reduces vagal stim of stomach
what happens when duodenum stim sympathetic neurons
sends inhibitory signals to stomach
chyme also stims duodenal enteroendocrine cells to release the hormones ___ and ____
- secretin
- cholecystokinin
what do secretin and cholecystokinin do? (2)
- stim the pancreas to release pancreatic fluid and gallbladder to release bile to suppress gastric secretion
- decreases gastrin secretion and pyloric sphincter contracts tightly to limit chyme entrance to duodenum
glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP) (3)
- aka gastrin inhibiting peptide
- secreted by enteroendocrine cells
- stimulates insulin secretion in preparation for processing nutrients about to be absorbed by small intestine
liver
- reddish-brown gland located immediately inferior to the diaphragm
- largest gland weighing about 3 lbs
what is the only function of the liver that contributes to the digestive system?
secretion of bile
the gallbladder adhere to a depression on the ____ of the liver
inferior surface
hepatocytes
cells in the lobules of the liver
what do hepatocytes do after a meal?
absorb glucose, amino acids, iron, vitamin, and other nutrients from blood for metabolism or storage
what do hepatocytes do between meals?
break down stored glycogen and release glucose into the blood
hepatocytes remove and degrade what four things?
- hormones
- toxins
- drugs
- bile pigments
hepatocyte secrete what into the blood? (5)
albumin, lipoproteins, clotting factors, angiotensinogen, and other products
the liver receives a mixture of ___ blood and ___ blood
- nutrient-laden venous blood
- freshly oxygenated arterial blood
where does nutrient-laden venous blood from for the liver?
the intestines
where does freshly oxygenated blood come from for the liver?
celiac trunk
after filtering through the liver, blood does what?
leaves the liver through the hepatic veins and drains into inferior vena cava
bile canaliculi
narrow channels into which the liver secretes bile which then drains into the right and left hepatic ducts
common hepatic duct
formed form convergence of right and left hepatic ducts on inferior side of liver
cystic duct
- joins the common hepatic duct
- the cystic duct leads to the gallbladder
bile duct
- formed from the union of cystic and common hepatic ducts
- descends toward the duodenum
near duodenum the bile duct joins duct of pancreas where it forms the ____ (two words)
hepatopancreatic ampulla
hepatopancreatic sphincter
regulates passage of bile and pancreatic juice into duodenum from ampulla
between meals what happens to the hepatopancreatic sphincter do?
sphincter closes and prevents the release of bile into the intestines
when does the hepatopancreatic sphincter open?
when cholecytokinin (CCK) is released by enteroendocrine cells from the duodenum during a meal
gallbladder
pear-shaped sac on underside of liver that stores and concentrates bile by absorbing water and electrolytes
bile
fluid secreted by the liver containing minerals, cholesterol, neutral fats, phospholipids, bile pigments, and bile acids
pigments and color of bile
- yellow-green color when secreted by liver
- becomes intense green when concentrated in gallbladder
bilirubin
primary bile pigments from hemoglobin decomposition
bacteria in the intestine metabolize bilirubin into _____
urobilinogen
about half of urobilinogen is converted to ____ and the other half is converted to ____
- urobilin (yellow in color)
- stercobilin
what converts urobilinogen to urobilin? where does it go after this?
- kidneys
- excreted into urine
where does urobilinogen get converted to stercobilin? what is it responsible for?
- intestine
- the brown color in feces
bile enters the gallbladder by
filling the bile duct then overflowing into the gallbladder
the liver secreted how much bile daily?
500-1000 mL
what happens to 80% of bile acids?
reabsorbed in the ileum and retuned to the liver where hepatocytes absorb and resecrete them
what happens to 20% of bile acids?
excreted in feces
feces is the body’s only way for eliminating what?
excess cholesterol
the liver synthesizes new bile acids from what?
cholesterol
gallstones (3)
- hard messes in either the gallbladder or bile duct
- composed of cholesterol, calcium carbonate, and bilirubin
- usually removed by laparoscopic surgery
cholelithiasis
- presence of gallstones
- can occur when cholesterol becomes too concentrated, precipitates as crystals that grow in size
cholelithiasis is most common in what people?
obese women over 40
a painful obstruction of the bile ducts can result in what?
- jaundice
- poor fat digestion
- impaired absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
pancreas
- flattened songy retroperitoneal gland posterior to greater curvature of stomach
- measures 12-15 cm long, 2.5 cm thick
the pancreas is both an ___ and ____ gland
endocrine and exocrine
endocrine portion of the pancreas
- pancreatic islets that secrete insulin and glucagon
- concentrated in the tail of the gland
exocrine portion of the pancreas
99% of pancreas that secretes 1200-1500 mL of pancreatic juice per day
what two ducts are apart of the pancreatic duct system
- pancreatic duct
- accessory pancreatic duct
pancreatic duct
- runs lengthwise through middle of the gland
- joins bile duct at the hepatopancreatic ampulla
hepatopancreatic sphincter controls the release of both ___ into the duodenum
bile and pancreatic juice
accessory pancreatic duct
- smaller duct that branches from the main pancreatic duct
- bypasses the sphincter and allows pancreatic juice to be released into duodenum even when bile is not
pancreatic juice
alkaline mixture of water, enzymes, zymogens, sodium bicarbonate, and other electrolytes
____ secrete the enzymes and zymogens of pancreatic juice
acini
___ secrete the sodium bicarbonate of pancreatic juice
ducts
what is the purpose of bicarbonate in pancreatic juice?
buffers HCl arriving from the stomach raising the pH to 7
what are the pancreatic zymogens
- trypsinogen
- chymotrypsinogen
- procarboxypeptidase
trypsinogen
- secreted into intestinal lumen to be converted to trypsin
- autocatalytic
- also converted to chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase
what converts trypsinogen and trypsin?
enteropeptidase
enteropeptidase is secreted by
brush border of duodenum
what makes trypsin autocatalytic
converts trypsinogen into still more trypsin
what are the pancreatic enzymes (not the zymogens) (4)
- pancreatic amylase
- pancreatic lipase
- ribonuclease
- deoxyribonuclease
pancreatic amylase
digests starch
pancreatic lipase
digests fats
ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease
digests RNA and DNA
when do the pancreatic enzymes become fully active
when exposed to bile or ions in intestinal lumen
what are the three stimuli that are responsible for the release of pancreatic juice and bile
- ACh (acetylcholine)
- CCK (cholecystokinin)
- secretin
acetylcholine as stimuli responsible for the release of pancreatic juice and bile
- stims acini to secrete enzymes during cephalic phase fo gastric control even before food is swallowed
- enzymes remain in acini and ducts until chyme enters the duodenum
where does acetylcholine come from to stim release of pancreatic juice and bile?
from the vagus and enteric nerves
cholecystokinin as stimuli responsible for the release of pancreatic juice and bile
- stim pancreatic acini to secrete enzymes
- strongly stims gallbladder
- induced contraction of gallbladder and relaxation of hepatopancreatic sphincter to discharge bile and pancreatic juice into duodenum
where does cholecystokinin come from to stim release of pancreatic juice and bile?
secreted by mucosa of duodenum in response to arrival of fats in small intestine
where does secretin come from to stim release of pancreatic juice and bile?
released from duodenum in response to acidic chyme arriving from the stomach
secretin as stimuli responsible for the release of pancreatic juice and bile
- stims ducts of both liver and pancreas to secrete more sodium bicarbonate
- raises pH to the level required for activity of the pancreatic and intestinal digestive enzymes
____ is the site of nearly all chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
small intestine
what are the dimensions of the small intestine?
5 meters long 2.5 cm wide
what is the blood flow out of the small intestine?
- drained by mesenteric veins
- converge to superior mesenteric vein
- joins splenic vein
- flows into hepatic portal system to the liver with its nutrients load
what are the three regions of the small intestine
- duodenum
- jejunum
- ileum
duodenum of the small intestine (3)
- first 25 cm (10 in)
- begins at pyloric valve
- most is retroperitoneal
functions of the duodenum (5)
- receives stomach contents, pancreatic juice, and bile
- neutralizes stomach acid
- emulsifiers fats
- inactivates pepsin
- pancreatic enzymes take over chemical digestion
jejunum of the small intestine
- first 40% of small intestine beyond duodenum
- 1-7 meters
- has large, tall, closely spaced circular folds
- wall is relatively thick and muscular
- rich in blood supply so red in color
what is the function of the jejunum
- most digestion and nutrient absorption occur here
- final digestion and absorption of carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
ileum of the small intestine
- forms last 60% of the post duodenal small intestine
- about 1.6-2.7 meters
- thinner, less muscular, less vascular, and paler pink in color than jejunum
aggregated lymphoid nodules
- prominent lymphatic nodules in clusters on the side opposite the mesenteric attachment
- visible naked eye
- become larger near large intestine
ileocecal junction
- end of the small intestine
- where the ileum joins the cecum of the large intestine
the tissues in the small intestine are similar to that of the ___ and ___
esophagus and stomach
the lumen of the small intestine is made of what kind of tissue
simple columnar epithelium
what are the two layers of the muscularis externa in the small intestine?
- thick inner circular layer
- thin outer longitudinal layer
where are the jejunum and the ileum of the small intestine? what does that mean?
- intraperitoneal
- covered with serosa
what are the three types of internal folds in the small intestine?
- circular folds
- villi
- microvilli
circular folds increase the surface area in the small intestine by a factor of
2-3
villi increase the surface area of the small intestine by a factor of
10
microvilli increase the surface area of the small intestine by a factor of
20
circular folds of the small intestine
- transverse to spiral ridges up to 1 cm high
- largest folds of the intestinal wall
the circular folds of the small intestine involve only the ____ and ____
mucosa and submucosa
where can you find circular folds of the small intestine?
duodenum to middle of ileum
why are there no circular folds in the distal portion of the ileum in the small intestine
because most nutrient reabsorption is complete by this point
what is the function of the circular folds of the small intestine
- cause chyme to flow in a spiral path causing contact with mucosa
- promote more thorough mixing and nutrient absorption
villi of the small intestine
- projections 0.5-1 mm high with tongue-to-fingerlike shapes
- make mucosa look fuzzy
- covered with two types of epithelial cells
what are the two types of epithelial cells that cover the villi small intestine?
- absorptive cells (enterocytes)
- goblet cells
what is the purpose of the two types of epithelial cells that cover the villi of the small intestine
secrete mucus
the epithelia of villi are joined by tight junctions to do what?
prevent digestive enzymes from seeping between them
the core of the villus in the small intestine is filled with what?
areolar tissue of lamina propria
what can be found in the areolar tissue of the lamina propria inside the villus of the small intestine?
- arteriole
- bloo capillaries
- venule
- lacteal
lacteal of small intestine
lymphatic capillaries in the small intestine villi that absorb most lipids and fats
____ absorbs most nutrients in the small intestine
blood capillaries in the villi
microvilli of the small intestine
- small plasma membrane extensions that form a fuzzy brush border on apical surface of each enterocyte
- about 1 um high
what is the function of microvilli in the small intestine
increase absorptive surface area and contain brush border enzymes
brush border enzymes
- contained in plasma membrane of microvilli
- carry out some of the final stages of enzymatic digestion
- not released into the lumen
contact digestion
chyme must contact the brush border for digestion to occur
____ ensures contact with the mucosa of the small intestine
intestinal churning of chyme
duodenal glands
- in submucosa of duodenum
- secrete an abundance of bicarbonate rich mucus
what is the function of the bicarbonate released by duodenal glands
- neutralize stomach acid and shield the mucosa from its erosive effects
- mucus contains signaling molecules that influence immune cells to tolerate food antigens and beneficial bacteria
what is the function of the lymphocytes found throughout the lamina propria and submucosa of the small intestine?
intercept pathogens before they can invade bloodstream
intestinal crypts
- between bases of the villi
- pores that open into tubular glands on the floor of the small intestine
- can extend as far as the muscularis mucosae
how much intestinal juice do intestinal crypts secrete per day?
1-2 liters
what triggers intestinal crypts to release intestinal juice?
- acid
- hypertonic chyme
- digestion of intestine
what is the pH of intestinal juice secreted by intestinal crypts? what is in it?
- 7.4-7.8
- water, mucus, little enzymes
most enzymes found in the small intestine are found where?
the brush border and pancreatic juice
what are the three functions of the contractions of the small intestine?
- mix chyme with intestinal juice, bile, and pancreatic juice
- churn chyme and bring it in contact with the mucosa for contact digestion and nutrient absorption
- to mose residue towards large intestine
what is the function of mixing chyme with intestinal juices, bile, and pancreatic juice?
- to neutralize acid
- digest nutrients more effectively
segmentation
- movement in which stationary ring-like constrictions appear in several places along the intestine
- most common intestinal contraction
- kneads and churns the intestinal contents
when do segmentation rings releax?
as new constrictions form elsewhere
what controls the rhytm of segmentation in the small intestine?
enteric pacemaker cells in the muscularis externa
describe the segmentation contractions in the duodenum and ileum
- contracts about 12x per minute in the duodenum
- 8-9x per min in the ileum
what happens to the small intestine contractions when nutrients have been absorbed?
segmentation declines and peristalsis begins
peristalsis
- rhythmic contractions that moves remaining contents of small intestine toward colon
- wave travels 10-70cm and dies out followed by another wave starting a little further down the tract
migrating motor complex
- successive overlapping waves of contraction
- milk chyme towards colon over a period of 2 hours
food in the stomach triggers ___ that enhances segmentation in the ileum and relaxes the ileal papilla
gastroileal reflex
what happens to the ileal papilla when there is food in the stomach?
releases material from small intestine to large intestine
what vitamins are fat soluble?
- A
- D
- E
- K
if fat-soluble vitamins are ingested with fat-containing food what happens?
they are not absorbed at all and passed in the feces and wasted
what are the water-soluble vitamins?
- B complex
- C
how is vitamin C absorbed in the body
simple diffusion in the stomach
how is B12 absorbed in the body?
intrinsic factor in the stomach
where does mineral absorption occur?
all along the small intestine
describe iron and calcium absorption in the small intestine.
- absorbed as needed
- most absorbed calcium is from meat and diary
- dietary fat slows calcium absorption
parathyroid hormone
- secreted in response to a drop in blood calcium levels to increase calcium absorption in duodenum
- stims kidney to synthesize vitamin D from precursors made by epidermis and liver
the digestive tract receives about ____ water a day
nine liters
water is absorbed by ___
osmosis
osmosis in the body
water follows the absorption of salts and organic nutrients
diarrhea
- occurs when large intestine absorbs too little water
- feces passes through too quickly if intestine is irritated
- contains high concentration of solute
lactose intolerance
- small intestine lack lactose to break down lactose
- excess lactose in the feces with diarrhea
describe the dimensions of the large intestines
1.5 meters long and 6.5 cm diameter
appendix
- attached to lower end of cecum in large intestine
- densely populated with lymphocytes and is significant source of immune cells
colon
portion of large intestine between ileocecal junction and rectum
what are the four portions of the colon
- ascending
- descending
- transverse
- sigmoid
what three portions of the colon frame the small intestine
- ascending
- desceinding
- transverse
sigmoid colon
S shaped portion leading down into pelvic cavity
rectum
- portion ending at anal canal
- has three curves and three infoldings
anal canal
- final 3 cm of the large intestine
- large hemorrhoidal veins
hemorrhoidal veins
- form superficial plexus in anal columns and around orifice
- lack valves and are subject to distension
hemorrhoids
permanently distended veins that protrude into anal canal or bulge outside the anus
what differentiates the muscularis externa of the colon from other organs with the same layer of muscle?
- taenia coli
- haustra
- in rectum and anal canal longitudinal muscle is continuous sheet with no haustra
taenia coli
longitudinal fibers concentrated in three thickened ribbon like strips
haustra
pouches in the colon caused by the muscle tone of the taenia coli
what two sphincters regulate the anus
- internal anal sphincter
- external anal sphincter
internal anal sphincter
smooth muscle of muscularis externa
external anal sphincter
skeletal muscle of pelvic diaphragm
large intestine mucosa (5)
- simple columnar epithelium in all regions except lower half of anal canal
- no circular folds or villi
- intestinal crypts are deeper than in small intestine
- greater amount of goblet cells
- lots of lymphoid tissue in lamina propria and submucosa
what is the purpose of there being an abundance of lymphoid tissue in the large intestine
provides protection from large population of bacteria in large intestine
gut microbiome
- microbiota
- more than 1000 species of bacteria, yeasts, viruses and other microbes that populate the large intestine
what do bacteria in the gut microbiome do?
- digests cellulose, pectin, and other carbohydrates for which our cells lack enzymes
- help in the synthesis of vitamins K and B
flatus
intestinal gas that is expelled
an average person produces ____ per day
500 mL
what is in flatus
- hydrogen sulfide
- indole
- skatol
____ produces odor in flatus
skatol
the large intestine takes how many hours to reduce food residue to feces
36-48 hours
how does the large intestine change food residue to feces
does not chemically change the residue but reabsorbs water and electrolytes
food residue spends the most amount of time in which part of the colon?
transverse colon
feces is how much water and how much solid?
75% water and 25% solid
what is in the solids of feces? (percentages too) (4)
- 30% bacteria
- 30% undigested fiber
- 10-12% fat
- small amounts of mucus, proteins, salts, digestive secretions, and sloughed epithelial cells
colonic motility includes what two things?
- haustral contractions
- mass movements
haustral contractions of colonic movement
- occur every 30 min
- distension of a haustrum stims it to contract
what is the purpose of haustral contractions of colonic motility
churns and mixes residue promoting water and salt absorption
mass movement of colonic movement
- stronger contractions that occur one to three times a day
- triggered by gastrocolic and duodenal reflexes
- filling of the stomach and duodenum stims motility of the colon
what is the purpose of mass movement of colonic motility
move residue several cm
the stretching of the rectum stims what two defecation reflexes?
- intrinsic defecation reflex
- parasympathetic defecation reflex
how does the intrinsic defecation reflex work
stretching signals travel through plexus to the muscularis causing it to contract and the internal sphincter to relax
parasympathetic defecation reflex involves the
the spinal cord
the intrinsic defecation reflex works with what to produce its response?
works entirely within myenteric plexus to produce relatively weak response
how does the parasympathetic reflex work?
- stretching of rectum sends sensory signals to spinal cord
- pelvic nerves return signals intensifying peristalsis and relaxing the internal anal sphincter
defecation occurs only if ___ and ___ are voluntarily relaxed
- external anal sphincter
- puborectalis muscles
Valsalva maneuver
abdominal contractions increase abdominal pressure and compress rectum to assist in defecation