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A&P 2 > Lesson 13/14 Exam 5 > Flashcards

Lesson 13/14 Exam 5 Flashcards

1
Q

breathing depends on

A

repetitive stim of skeletal muscles from brain

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2
Q

breathing will cease if

A

spinal cord is severed high in neck

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3
Q

what are the two levels of the brain where breathing is controlled

A
  • cerebral and conscious
  • unconscious and automatic
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4
Q

brainstem respiratory centers (2)

A
  • automatic unconscious breathing
  • controlled by respiratory centers in reticular formation
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5
Q

what are the two pairs of respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata

A
  • ventral respiratory group
  • dorsal respiratory group
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6
Q

ventral respiratory group (3)

A
  • primary generator of the respiratory rhythm
  • reverberating circuits I neurons and E neurons
  • 12 breaths per minute
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7
Q

dorsal respiratory group (4)

A
  • inspiratory center stims inspiratory breathing
  • functions in both quiet and forced breathing
  • modifies the rate and depth of breathing
  • receives influences from external sources
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8
Q

what are the input receptors to the respiratory centers

A
  • central chemoreceptors
  • peripheral chemoreceptors
  • stretch receptors
  • irritant receptors
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9
Q

central chemoreceptors

A
  • brainstem neurons respond to changes in pH of CSF
  • regulate respiration to maintain stable pH
  • ensure stable CO2 levels in blood
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10
Q

pH of CSF reflects the ____ level in blood

A

CO2

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11
Q

peripheral chemoreceptors

A
  • located in carotid and aortic bodies
  • respond to O2 and CO2 content and pH of blood
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12
Q

stretch receptors

A
  • smooth muscle of bronchi and bronchioles and the visceral pleura
  • respond to inflation of lungs
  • inflation (Hering-Breuer) reflex
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13
Q

inflation (Hering-Breuer) reflex

A
  • triggered by excessive inflation
  • protective reflex inhibits inspiratory neurons and stops inspiration to stop excessive inflation/stretching of lung tissue
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14
Q

irritant receptors

A
  • nerve endings amid epithelial cells of the airway
  • trigger protective reflexes
  • respond to foreign bodies
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15
Q

examples of what irritant receptors respond to

A
  • smoke
  • dust
  • pollen
  • chemical fumes
  • cold air
  • excess mucus
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16
Q

what are the protective reflexes triggered by irritant receptors

A
  • bronchoconstriction
  • shallower breathing
  • breath holding
  • coughing
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17
Q

voluntary control over breathing originates in

A

motor cortex of frontal lobe of cerebrum

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18
Q

what does the voluntary control of breathing do in regards to the nervous system

A

send impulses down corticospinal tracts to respiratory neurons in spinal cord bypassing the brainstem

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19
Q

breaking point

A

when CO2 levels rise to a point where automatic controls override one’s voluntary will

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20
Q

respiratory airflow is governed by

A

the same principles of flow, pressure, and resistance as blood flow

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21
Q

the flow of a fluid is ___ to the pressure difference between two points

A

directly proportional

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22
Q

the flow of fluid is ____ to the resistance

A

indirectly proportional

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23
Q

atmospheric pressure

A

the weight of the air above us

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24
Q

what is the atmospheric pressure at sea level

A
  • 760 mmHg
  • 1 atm
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25
Q

_____ atmospheric pressure at higher elevations

A

lower

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26
Q

intrapulmonary pressure

A

air pressure within lungs

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27
Q

intrapulmonary pressure changes with ___

A

lung volume

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28
Q

Boyle’s Law

A
  • governs air flow into and out of the lungs
  • at constant temp the pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume
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29
Q

if lung volume increases what happens to intrapulmonary pressure

A

it decreases

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30
Q

if the pressure inside the lungs falls below atm pressure

A

air moves into the lungs

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31
Q

if lung volume decreases intrapulmonary pressure

A

increases

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32
Q

if lung pressure rises above atm pressure

A

air moves out of the lungs

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33
Q

during inspiration what happens

A

the lungs expand and follow the expansion of the thoracic cage because of intrapleural pressure

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34
Q

intrapleural pressure

A

slightly negative pressure that exists between the two pleural layers

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35
Q

recoil of lung tissue and tissues of the thoracic cage causes

A

lungs and chest wall to be pulling in opposite direction

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36
Q

about ____ if intrapleural pressure results from layers of pleura staying together

A

-5 cm H2O

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37
Q

in quiet breathing

A

thoracic cage increases only a few mm in each direction

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38
Q

during inspiration, the visceral pleura does what?

A

stretches the alveoli near surface of lungs which are coupled to deeper alveoli which get pulled too

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39
Q

as alveoli increases in volume

A

the intrapulmonary pressure drops below atm pressure

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40
Q

what is another force that expands lungs during inspiration?

A

warming of inhaled air

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41
Q

Charles’s Law

A

the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temp

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42
Q

on a cool day 60°F air will do what during inspiration

A

increase its temp by 39°F

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43
Q

inhaled air is warmed to _____ by the time it reached the alveoli

A

99°F

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44
Q

inhaled volume of 500ml will expand to 536ml. what does this do to the lungs?

A

contribute to inflation of the lungs

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45
Q

passive process in quiet expiration is achieved by

A

mainly by elastic recoil of thoracic cage which compresses the lungs

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46
Q

expiration does what to intrapulmonary pressure

A

raises to about +1cm H2O

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47
Q

in a normal lung the intrapulmonary pressure is always

A

negative in both inspiration and expiration

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48
Q

pneumothorax (3)

A
  • presence of air in the pleural cavity
  • thoracic wall is punctured
  • inspiration sucks air through the wound into pleural cavity
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49
Q

what happens to the potential space during a pneumothorax

A

becomes an air-filled cavity causing the loss of negative intrapleural pressure allowing the lung to recoil and collapse

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50
Q

atelectasis

A

collapse of part or all of a lung

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51
Q

what can a collapsed lung result from (physiological)

A

from an airway obstruction as blood absorbs gases from the alveoli causing a decrease in alveolar volume and subsequent alveolar collapse

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52
Q

a collapsed lung can be caused by (diseases) (4)

A
  • lung tumor
  • aneurysm
  • swollen lymph nodes
  • aspirated objects into the airway
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53
Q

what two factors influence airway resistence

A

bronchiole diameter and pulmonary compliance

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54
Q

bronchodilation

A

increase in diameter of bronchus or bronchiole

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55
Q

bronchoconstriction

A

decrease in diameter of bronchus or bronchiole

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56
Q

pulmonary compliance (2)

A
  • ease with which the lungs can expand
  • change in long volume relative to a given pressure change
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57
Q

pulmonary compliance is reduced in

A

degenerative lung disease in which the lungs are stiffened to scar tissue

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58
Q

what are two examples of degenerative lung diseases where the tissue is turned to scar tissue

A
  • TB
  • black lung disease
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59
Q

pulmonary compliance is limited by

A

surface tension of water inside alveoli

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60
Q

what does surfactant do in the alveoli

A

disrupts hydrogen bonds between water molecules and thus reduced surface tension making ti easier to fill with air

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61
Q

infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS)

A

premature babies lacking surfactant are treated with artificial surfactant until they can make with own

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62
Q

only about ____ of air fills the conducting zone of the airway

A

150ml

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63
Q

anatomical dead space

A

the space in the conducting zone where there is no gas exchange

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64
Q

the anatomical dead space can be altered by ______ which increases what?

A
  • sympathetic dilation
  • flow into the lungs
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65
Q

spirometry

A

measuring pulmonary ventilation

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66
Q

what aid in the diagnosis of and assessment of restrictive/obstructive lung disease

A

spirometry

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67
Q

restrictive disorders of the lungs (2)

A
  • reduction in pulmonary compliance and limit how much lungs can inflate
  • any disease that produces pulmonary fibrosis
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68
Q

black lung and TB are what kind of lung disease

A

restrictive

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69
Q

obstructive disorders of the lungs (2)

A
  • interfere with airflow by narrowing or blocking the airway
  • make it harder to inhale or exhale a given amount of air
70
Q

asthma and chronic bronchitis are examples of what kind of lung disease

A

obstructive

71
Q

____ combines elements of both restrictive and obstructive disorders of the lungs

A

emphysema

72
Q

eupnea

A

relaxed, quiet breathing

73
Q

apnea

A

temporary cessation of breathing

74
Q

dyspnea

A
  • labored, gasping breathing
  • shortness of breath
75
Q

hyperpnea

A

increase rate and depth of breathing in response to exercise, pain, or other condition

76
Q

hyperventilation

A

increase pulmonary ventilation in excess of metabolic demand

77
Q

hypoventilation

A

reduced pulmonary ventilation leading to an increase in blood CO2

78
Q

Kussmaul respiration

A

deep, rapid breathing often induced by acidosis or diabetes-related ketoacidosis

79
Q

atmospheric air contains (4)

A
  • 78.6% nitrogen
  • 20.9% oxygen
  • 0.04% carbon dioxide
  • 0-4% water vapor depending on temp and humidity
80
Q

atmospheric air contains minor amounts of what? (5)

A
  • argon
  • neon
  • helium
  • methane
  • ozone
81
Q

dalton’s law

A

total atmospheric pressure is the sum of the contributions of the individual gases

82
Q

partial pressure

A

separate contribution of each gas in a mixture

83
Q

how is air humidified during inspiration? how much is it humidified by the time it reaches the alveoli?

A
  • contact with mucous membranes
  • 10x
84
Q

the composition of inspired air and alveolar air differ because of what three influences?

A
  • air is humidified by contact with mucous membranes
  • alveolar air mixes with residual air
  • alveolar air exchanges O2 and CO2 with blood
85
Q

the partial pressure of O2 in alveolar air is ____ that of inspired air

A

65%

86
Q

the partial pressure of CO2 in alveolar air is ____ (higher/lower) than that of inspired air

A

130x

87
Q

alveolar gas exchange

A
  • the movement of O2 and CO2 across the respiratory membrane
  • air in the alveolus is in contact with a film of water covering the alveolar epithelium
88
Q

for oxygen to get into the blood what must happen?

A

it must dissolve in the water covering the alveolar epithelium and pass through the respiratory membrane separating the air from the bloodstream

89
Q

for carbon dioxide to leave the blood what must happen

A

it must pass the other direction as O2 and then diffuse out of the water film into the alveolar air

90
Q

gas diffuses…until…

A

down their own concentration gradient until the partial pressure of each gas in the air is equal to its partial pressure in the water

91
Q

henry’s law

A

at the air-water interface for a given temp the amount of gas that dissolved in the water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in air

92
Q

the greater the partial pressure of O2 in the alveolar air

A

the more O2 the blood picks up

93
Q

since the blood arriving at the alveolus has a higher ppCO2 than air what happens

A

blood releases CO2 into the air

94
Q

the efficiency in unloading CO2 and loading O2 on the erythrocytes depends on

A

how long an RBC stays in alveolar capillaries

95
Q

how much time is required to reach equilibrium of O2 and CO2 pp

A

0.25 sec

96
Q

at rest how much time do RBCs stay in the alveolar capillaries

A

0.75 sec

97
Q

in strenuous exercise how long do RBCs stay in the alveolar capillaries

A

0.3 sec

98
Q

each gas in an air mixture acts (independently/dependently) of the other gases in the mixture

A

independently

99
Q

what variables affect alveolar gas exchange (5)

A
  • pressure gradients of the gases
  • solubility of the gases
  • membrane surface area
  • membrane thickness
  • ventilation-perfusion coupling
100
Q

what is the normal ppO2 in alveolar air vs in the blood

A

104mmHg in alveolar air and 40mmHg in blood

101
Q

what is the normal ppCO2 in alveolar air vs in the blood

A

46mmHg in the blood and 40mmHg in alveolar air

102
Q

pressure gradients of gases differ when (2)

A
  • at higher altitudes
  • hyperbaric oxygen therapy
103
Q

at high elevations what happens to pp of atm gases? pressure gradient of oxygen?

A
  • atm: lower
  • O2: lower so less diffuse into blood
104
Q

hyperbaric oxygen therapy

A

treatment of oxygen at greater than 1 atm of pressure

105
Q

what happens to the gradients of oxygen in hyperbaric oxygen therapy

A

larger gradient so more oxygen diffuses into the blood

106
Q

what is hyperbaric oxygen therapy used to treat

A
  • gangrene
  • CO poisoning
107
Q

by the time blood reaches the left atrium what is the ppO2? what is it caused by?

A
  • 95mmHg
  • mixing of oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein with deoxygenated blood from the bronchial vein
108
Q

what are the pp of O2 and CO2 of blood when it reaches the tissues

A
  • O2: 95mmHg
  • CO2: 40mmHg
109
Q

what is the ppO2 and ppCO2 in the tissue?

A
  • O2: 40 mmHg
  • CO2: 46mmHg
110
Q

what happens during gas exchange in tissues

A

O2 is driven to tissue while CO2 is driven to blood so that venous blood leaving will have ppO2 of 40mmHg and ppCO2 of 46mmHg

111
Q

CO2 if ___ as soluble as O2

A

20x

112
Q

why are equal amounts of O2 and CO2 exchanged across the respiratory membrane

A

because CO2 is much more soluble and diffuses more rapidly

113
Q

what three diseases of the lungs decrease surface area for gas exchange?

A
  • emphysema
  • lung cancer
  • TB
114
Q

what is the surface area of alveoli across the lungs

A

70m^2

115
Q

the respiratory membrane is hoe thick?

A

only 0.5um

116
Q

when membranes fo rgas exchange are thicker what happens?

A

gases have to travel farther between blood and air and cannot equilibrate fast enough to keep up with blood flow

117
Q

what two diseases of the lungs thicken the respiratory membrane

A
  • pulmonary edema
  • pneumonia
118
Q

ventilation perfusion coupling

A
  • air flow and blood flow are matched to each other
  • gas exchange requires both good perfusion and good ventilation of the capillaries
119
Q

_____ change diameter depending on air flow to an area of the lungs

A

pulmonary blood vessels

120
Q

_____ change diameter depending on blood flow to an area of the lungs

A

bronchi

121
Q

gas transport

A

process of carrying gases from the alveoli to the systemic tissues and vice versa

122
Q

arterial blood carries ____ of O2

A

20ml/deciliter

123
Q

what are the two ways O2 is transported in the blood and what percentage O2 moves that way?

A
  • 98.5% bound to hemoglobin
  • 1.5% dissolved in plasma
124
Q

how many components are there in a hemoglobin molecule?

A

four

125
Q

what are the two parts of each component in hemoglobin?

A
  • globin (protein) chain
  • heme group
126
Q

each heme group can bind ___ O2 to what?

A
  • one
  • a ferrous group (Fe2+)
127
Q

oxyhemoglobin

A

O2 bound to hemoglobin

128
Q

deoxyhemoglobin

A

hemoglobin with no O2

129
Q

oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

A

illustrates relationship between hemoglobin saturation and ambient ppO2

130
Q

is the hemoglobin dissociation curve linear?

A

no

131
Q

what happens to O2 saturation at low ppO2

A

curve rises slowly then rapid increase in oxygen loading as ppO2 rises farther

132
Q

why is there an observed rapid increase in O2 loading at low ppO2?

A

because when hemoglobin binds each other oxygen it makes it easier to bind the next one

133
Q

what happens to O2 saturation when there is a high ppO2

A

the curve levels off because hemoglobin approaches 100% saturation and cannot load much more O2

134
Q

what are the three forms in which CO2 is transported and what percentage of CO2 is transported that way?

A
  • 90% bicarbonate
  • 5% carbaminohemoglobin
  • 5% dissolved gas
135
Q

what is the reaction that changes CO2 to bicarbonate

A

CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3 -> HCO3- + H+

136
Q

where does the bicarbonate reaction occur?

A

inside the erythrocytes

137
Q

carbaminohemoglobin

A

CO2 bound to hemoglobin

138
Q

does CO2 compete with O2 to bind to hemoglobin? why?

A

no because they bind to different moieties

139
Q

what are the relative amounts of CO2 exchanged between the blood and alveolar air?

A
  • 70% carbonic acid
  • 23% carbaminohemoglobin
  • 7% dissolved in plasma
140
Q

what is the hardest form of CO2 in the body to get CO2 from?

A

bicarbonate

141
Q

carbon monoxide (CO)

A

colorless, odorless gas in cigarette smoke, engine exhaust, and fumes from gas furnaces

142
Q

does CO compete with O2 to bind? why?

A

yes because it binds to the iron in hemoglobin where O2 binds

143
Q

carboxyhemoglobin

A

carbon monoxide bound to hemoglobin

144
Q

CO binds up to ____ tightly as O2

A

210x

145
Q

what is the percentage of CO bound to hemoglobin in a non-smoker?

A

less than 1.5%

146
Q

what is the amount of CO bound to hemoglobin in heavy smokers?

A

10%

147
Q

what are the treatments for CO poisoning?

A
  • pure oxygen
  • hyperbaric oxygen therapy
  • blood transfusion
148
Q

systemic gas exchange

A

unloading of O2 and loading of CO2 at systemic capillaries

149
Q

carbonic anhydrase

A

catalyzes reaction to bicarbonate and hydrogen ions

150
Q

chloride shift

A

bicarbonate pumped out of RBC in exchange for chloride ion from plasma

151
Q

what performs the chloride shift?

A

chloride-bicarbonate exchanger (antiport protein)

152
Q

what is the purpose of the chloride shift

A
  • keep the carbonic anhydrase reaction going
  • H+ binds to hemoglobin
153
Q

how is hemoglobin made to let go of O2 during oxygen unloading

A
  • H+ binding to HbO2 reduced its affinity for O2
  • O2 moving down its pressure gradient
154
Q

HbO2 arrives at systemic capillaries ___ saturated and leaves ___ saturated

A
  • 97%
  • 75%
155
Q

utilization coefficient

A

the giving up of 22% of O2 load by hemoglobin during oxygen unloading

156
Q

what are the three steps of CO2 unloading in the lungs

A
  • as Hb loads O2, H+ affinity decreases and binds to HCO3-
  • reverse carbonic anhydrase
  • reverse chloride shift
157
Q

what is a reverse chloride shift

A
  • HCO3- diffuses back into RBC in exchange for Cl-
  • free CO2 is generated and diffuses into alveolus to be exhaled
158
Q

hemoglobin unloads O2 to match

A

metabolic needs

159
Q

four factors that adjust rate of O2 unloading to match need: ambient ppO2

A
  • active tissue has low ppO2
  • O2 released from Hb
160
Q

what are the four factors that adjust rate of O2 unloading to match need?

A
  • ambient ppO2
  • temp
  • ambient pH
    -BPG
161
Q

four factors that adjust rate of O2 unloading to match need: temperature

A

active tissue had high temp and promotes O2 unloading

162
Q

four factors that adjust rate of O2 unloading to match need: ambient pH

A

active tissue has high CO2 which lowers pH and promotes O2 unloading

163
Q

what is it called when active tissue has high CO2 which lowers pH and promotes O2 unloading

A

the bohr effect

164
Q

four factors that adjust rate of O2 unloading to match need: BPG

A

RBCs produce biphosphoglycerate which binds to Hb and promotes O2 unloading

165
Q

what raises BPG levels?

A
  • high body temp
  • thyroxine
  • GH
  • testoterone
  • epinephrine
166
Q

higher temp causes a shift to the ___ of the O2 dissociation curve

A

right

167
Q

lower temp causes a ____ shift in the O2 dissociation curve

A

left

168
Q

shift to the right of the O2 dissociation curve causes ___ and a shift to the left causes ____

A
  • more O2 release from Hb
  • less O2 release from hemoglobin
169
Q

lower pH shifts the O2 dissociation curve to the

A

right

170
Q

higher pH shifts the O2 dissociation curve to the

A

left

A&P 2 (9 decks)

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