Lesson 1 - chapter 2 - cell Flashcards

1
Q

2 major parts of cell

A

nucleus
cytoplasm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm
by a

A

nuclear membrane

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

cytoplasm is separated
from the surrounding fluids by a

A

cell membrane, also
called the plasma membrane.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

different substances that make up the cell

A

protoplasm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Protoplasm is composed
mainly of five basic substances

A

water 70-85%
electrolytes,
proteins 10-20%
lipids, and
carbohydrates.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

principal fluid medium of the cell
present in most cells, except for fat cells,
70-85%
Many cellular chemicals are dissolved

A

water

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

ions/electrolytes:

A

K+ potassium,
MG+2 magnesium,
PO4 -3 phosphate,
SO4 -2 sulfate,
CHO3- bicarbonate

smaller quantities of sodium, chloride, and calcium

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

provide inorganic chemicals for cellular reactions and also are necessary for operation of some of the
cellular control mechanisms

A

IONS

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

2nd most abundant substances
in most cells are

A

proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

present in the cell mainly in
the form of long filaments that are polymers of many
individual protein molecules.

A prominent use of such intracellular filaments is to form microtubules that provide
the “cytoskeletons” of such cellular organelles as cilia,
nerve axons, the mitotic spindles of cells undergoing
mitosis, and a tangled mass of thin filamentous tubules that hold the parts of the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm together in their respective compartments.

A

structural proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

mainly the enzymes of the cell and, in contrast to the
fibrillar proteins, are often mobile in the cell fluid.

A

functional proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

are found outside the cell, especially in the collagen and elastin fibers of connective tissue and in blood vessel walls, tendons, ligaments, and so forth.

A

Fibrillar proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

soluble in fat solvents

A

lipids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Especially important lipids which together constitute only about 2% of the total cell mass

A

phospholipids and cholesterol

triglycerides, also called neutral fat

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

fat cells, triglycerides often account for
as much as ________ of the cell mass

A

95%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

The fat stored in
these cells represents the body’s main storehouse of
energy-giving nutrients that can later be used to provide
energy wherever in the body it is needed

A

lipids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

1% of total cell mass,
3% in muscles,
6% in liver): glycogen

A

carbohydrates

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

which is an insoluble polymer of glucose that can
be depolymerized and used rapidly to supply the cells’ energy needs.

A

glycogen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

MEMBRANOUS STRUCTURES
OF THE CELL:

A

cell membrane,
nuclear membrane,
membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum,
membranes of the mitochondria, lysosomes, and Golgi apparatus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

_________ in the membranes provide a barrier that
impedes movement of water and water-soluble substances from one cell compartment to another because water is not soluble in lipids

A

lipids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

molecules providing specialized pathways, often organized into actual pores, for passage of specific substances through the membrane

A

protein

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

proteins that catalyze a multitude of
different chemical reactions, discussed here and in subsequent chapters

A

enzymes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane)
envelops the cell and is a thin, pliable, elastic structure
only 7.5 to 10 nanometers thick.

A

cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

approximate composition or cell membrane:

A

proteins, 55%
phospholipids, 25%
cholesterol, 13%
other lipids, 4% and
carbohydrates, 3%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
basic lipid bilayer is composed of three main types of lipids:
phospholipids, sphingolipids, and cholesterol
26
most abundant, has 2 sides
Phospholipids
27
(fatty acid portion) hydrophobic and soluble only in fats (e.g. O2, CO2, alcohol); faces each other
Outer side of phospholipid
28
(phosphate end) hydrophilic and soluble in water (e.g. ions, glucose, urea); faces interstitial fluid & cell cytoplasm
inner side of phospholipid
29
derived from the amino alcohol sphingosine, functions to protect from harmful factors, signal transmission, and adhesion sites for extracellular proteins
Sphingolipids
30
Cholesterol - help determine the degree of permeability of the bilayer to water- soluble constituents of body fluids. Also controls much of the fluidity of the membrane as well.
Cholesterol
31
2 Membrane proteins “glycoproteins”:
○ Integral proteins ○ Peripheral proteins
32
protrude all the way through the membrane. Provide structural channels “pores” that allow preferential diffusion of some substances over others Carrier proteins for transporting substances that otherwise could not penetrate the lipid bilayer (e.g. through active transport Receptors/ second messengers relaying the signal from the extracellular part of the receptor to the interior of the cell.
Integral proteins
33
attached only to one surface and do not penetrate all the way through; function almost entirely as enzymes or as controllers of transport of substances through cell membrane pores
Peripheral proteins
34
loose carbohydrate (proteoglycans) coat on the outside of the entire surface of the cell
Membrane carbohydrates “glycocalyx”
35
○ overall negative surface charge that repels other negatively charged objects ○ attaching cells to one another through glycocalyx ○ act as receptors for binding hormones ○ Some moieties enter into immune reactions
Membrane carbohydrates “glycocalyx”
36
Cytosol - jelly like fluid portion of the cytoplasm and contains mainly dissolved proteins, electrolytes, and glucose
Cytosol
37
Dispersed in the cytoplasm are neutral fat globules, glycogen granules, ribosomes, secretory vesicles, and five especially important organelles:
○ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) ○ Golgi apparatus ○ Mitochondria ○ Lysosomes ○ Peroxisomes
38
○ a network of tubular structures (cisternae) and flat vesicular structures in the cytoplasm ○ Manufacture: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids ○ helps process molecules made by the cell and transports them to their specific destinations
Endoplasmic Reticulum
39
Attached with minute granular particles “ribosomes — composed of a mixture of RNA and proteins; they function to synthesize new protein molecules in the cell
Rough (Granular) ER + Ribosomes
40
functions for the synthesis of lipid substances and for other processes of the cells promoted by intrareticular enzymes
Smooth (Agranular) ER
41
○ composed of four or more stacked layers of thin, flat, enclosed vesicles lying near one side of the nucleus
Golgi Apparatus
42
Function in association with ER — small transport vesicles/ ER vesicles continually pinch off from the ER and shortly thereafter fuse with the Golgi apparatus —> transported substances from ER are processed in the here to form lysosomes, secretory vesicles, and other cytoplasmic components
Golgi apparatus
43
vesicular organelles that form by breaking off from the Golgi apparatus that provide an intracellular digestive system to digest the following: ■ damaged celllar structures; ■ food particles ingested by the cell; ■ unwanted matter such (e.g. bacteria)
Lysosomes
44
lysosomes Uses _________ to splits organic compounds into two or more parts by combining hydrogen from a water molecule with one part of the compound and combining the hydroxyl portion of the water molecule with the other part of the compound — to become highly diffusible (e.g. protein hydrolyzed to form amino acids)
hydrolytic enzymes
45
Formed by self-replication (or perhaps by budding off from the smooth SR)
Peroxisomes
46
contain oxidases — combining oxygen with hydrogen ions derived from different intracellular chemicals to form hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) — which is a highly oxidizing substance and is used in association with catalase — to oxidize/ catabolize many substances that might otherwise be poisonous to the cell
Peroxisomes
47
formed by the ER — which pinch off to be Golgi apparatus — Golgi apparatus releases into the cytoplasm in the form of storage vesicles named “secretory vesicles/secretory granules”
“secretory vesicles/secretory granules”
48
store protein proenzymes (enzymes that are not yet activated) — secreted later through the outer cell membrane into the pancreatic duct and then into the duodenum, where they become activated and perform digestive functions on the food in the intestinal trac
Secretory Vesicles
49
○ Powerhouse; self-replicative ○ Mainly for chemical reaction of O2 with 3 types of foods: glucose (carbo), fatty acid (fats), amino acids (proteins) ○ 2 Lipid Bilayer protein membranes ■ Outer membrane ■ Inner membrane
Mitochondria
50
infoldings of the inner membrane form shelves or tubules which oxidative enzymes are attached;
Cristae
51
the inner cavity of the mitochondrion is filled with a _________ that contains large quantities of dissolved enzymes necessary for extracting energy from nutrients
matrix
52
synthesizes a high-energy substance called adenosine triphosphate (ATP) — which is then transported out of the mitochondrion and diffuses throughout the cell to release its own energy — end products are H2O & CO2
Citric Acid Cycle
53
○ Rigid and have large numbers of filamentous or tubular structures, which are composed of fibrillar proteins synthesized by ribosomes in the cytoplasm ○ Intermediate filaments ○ Microtubules
Cell Cytoskeleton — Filament & Tubular Structures
54
■ strong ropelike filaments that often work together with microtubules, providing strength and support for the fragile tubulin structures ■ Types: desmin filaments in muscle cells, neurofilaments in neurons, and keratins in epithelial cells
Intermediate filaments
55
■ special type of stiff filament composed of polymerized tubulin molecules used in all cells to construct strong tubular structures ■ Makes up the centrioles & mitotic spindles ■ participate in cell division, allows cells to move, and provides a tracklike system that directs the movement of organelles in the cells
Microtubules
56
○ Control center — sends messages to the cell to grow and mature, replicate, or die ○ Contains large quantities of DNA which comprise genes — determine the characteristics of the cell’s proteins, intracellular enzymes and nuclear activities; also control and promote cell reproduction (mitosis)
Nucleus
57
● two separate bilayer membranes, separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm ● Penetrated with several thousand nuclear pores
Nuclear membrane/ Nuclear envelope
58
● simply an accumulation of large amounts of RNA and proteins of the types found in ribosomes; not surrounded by a membrane ● RNA is used in conjunction with specific proteins to assemble “mature” ribosomes that play an essential role in forming proteins
Nucleoli
59
- involves simple movement through the membrane caused by the random motion of the molecules of the substance. - Substances move through cell membrane pores or, in the case of lipid-soluble substances, through the lipid matrix of the membrane.
Diffusion
60
involves actually carrying a substance through the membrane by a physical protein structure that penetrates all the way through the membrane
Active transport
61
Specialized function of the cell membrane that allows large particles enter the cell:
A. Pinocytosis B. Phagocytosis
62
ingestion of small globules of extracellular fluid, forming minute vesicles in the cell cytoplasm only means whereby most large macromolecules, such as most proteins, can enter cells; process also requires the presence of calcium ions in the extracellular fluid
Pinocytosis
63
Uses specialized protein receptors on the small pits (COATED PICS) on the outer surface of the cell of the membrane, that are specific for the type of protein that is to be absorbed
Pinocytosis
64
On the inside of the cell membrane beneath these pits is a latticework of fibrillar protein called CLATHRIN— which invaginates inward, and fibrillar proteins surrounding the invaginating pit cause its borders to close over the attached proteins, as well as over a small amount of extracellular fluid
Pinocytosis
65
invaginated portion of the membrane breaks away from the surface of the cell, forming a pinocytotic vesicle inside the cytoplasm of the cell
Pinocytosis
66
ingestion of large particles, such as bacteria, whole cells, or portions of degenerating tissue
Phagocytosis
67
Only certain cells have the capability of phagocytosis—notably, ________ & _____________
tissue macrophages and some white blood cells
68
initiated when a particle such as a bacterium, dead cell, or tissue debris binds with receptors on the surface of the phagocyte. In the case of bacteria, each bacterium is usually already attached to a specific antibody which attaches to the phagocyte receptors —dragging the bacterium along with it.
opsonization
69
Phagocytosis occurs in the following steps:
1. The cell membrane receptors attach to the surface ligands of the particle. 2. The edges of the membrane around the points of attachment evaginates outward to surround the entire particle; then, 3. Actin and other contractile fibrils in the cytoplasm surround the phagocytic vesicle and 4. The contractile proteins then pinch the stem of the vesicle so completely that the vesicle separates from the cell membrane,
70
digests the Pinocytic and Phagocytic foreign substances in the cell. These are produced by the Endoplasmic Reticulum, and often globular and enzymatic in function.
Lysosomes
71
As soon as Pinocytic or Phagocytic vesicles are formed, Lysosomes are attached to vesicles and empty the Digestive Enzymes. This is now referred to as the _____________, and they have hydrolyzing properties. It will destroy proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and other substances in the vesicle.
Digestive Vesicle
72
The products of digestion are often small molecules. ________________ This can diffuse from the membrane of the vesicle and go to the cytoplasm.
Proteins end up being Carbohydrate, Carbohydrates end up being Glucose.
73
Any undigested substances are left behind in the form of residual body that is excreted through the cell membrane by a reverse endocytosis (___ ), which is basically the opposite of endocytosis.
exocytosis
74
responsible for Cytoprotein formation. The ribosomes synthesize the protein and exclude them to the wall of the ER to Endoplasmic vesicles and tubules, which is now an Endoplasmic Matrix.
Granular ER
75
processes the substances formed in the ER (there is post-processing). performs the compaction and processing of the products of the endoplasmic reticulum, and small and large vesicles would break out from the golgi apparatus and carry them to secretory substances.
Golgi apparatus
76
The principal substances from which cells extract energy are:
1. Oxygen 2. Carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids, which react with oxygen
77
substances are processed in the golgi complex and form
lysosomes, secretory vesicles, and other cytoplasmic components.
78
Small spherical vesicles surrounded by a membrane that contains digestive enzymes provide an Intracellular Digestive System
Lysosomes
79
is a nucleotide composed of nitrogenous base adenine, the pentose sugar ribose, and three phosphate radicals.
ATP or the adenosine triphosphate
80
The last 2 phosphate radicals are connected with the remainder through high energy phosphate bonds. These bonds contain ____________of energy per molecule of ATP under usual conditions the high energy phosphate bonds are labile so they can be split instantly whenever energy is required.
12,000 calories
81
_______ combine to form new ATP, which, in this case the entire process actually continues over and over again for the body
ATP and phosphoric acid
82
So most of the ATP produced in the cell is through mitochondria. After entering the cell, the glucose is subjected to glycolysis to form by ______________
pyruvic acid
83
Pyruvic acid as a product of glycolysis also comes from the degradation of carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids, which are eventually all converted to ___________________
Acetyl-CoA
84
Acetyl-CoA as a compound is formed in the mitochondrial matrix. Now this substance is then acted on by another enzyme or series of enzymes in the process called _____________
citric acid cycle
85
In the Citric Acid Cycle, Acetyl-CoA are split into _________ & ___________ The hydrogen ions are highly reactive and eventually combine with oxygen that has diffused into the mitochondria.
hydrogen ions and carbon dioxide
86
This reaction releases a tremendous amount of energy that is used to convert large amounts of ADP to ATP. This requires large numbers of ______________ that are actually part of the mitochondria.
protein enzymes
87
The initial event in ATP formation is the removal of the electrons, the hydrogen atom, thereby converting it to __________
hydrogen ion
88
The terminal event of the hydrogen ion is moving through large globular proteins called ___________, which protrudes to the membranes of the mitochondria, which presents in the mitochondrial matrix.
ATP synthetase
89
The enzyme ATP synthetase uses the energy and movement of the hydrogen ions to effect the conversion of ADP to ATP, and hydrogen ions combined with oxygen to form the by-product ________
water
90
The newly formed ATP is transported out of the mitochondrion to all parts of the cell, where it synergizes the function of the cell.
Chemosmotic mechanism of ATP formation.
91
ATP is mainly used in many cellular processes such as:
1. membrane transport as it occurs in the sodium potassium pump which transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell 2. the synthesis of chemical compounds throughout the cell; 3. mechanical work, as occurs with the contraction of muscle fibers or with ciliary and ameboid motion.
92
The _________ movement is typically seen in white BLOOD cells. This amoeboid movement is related to the surroundings. EX: white blood cells through tissues to form tissue macrophages
Amoeboid
93
Typically, amoeboid motion begins with the protrusion of ___________from one end of the cell. This results in a continuous exocytosis, which informs a new cell membrane at the leading edge of the pseudopodium and continual endocytosis of the membrane in the rear portions of the cell. The white blood cells reacts to the substances produced by other tissues
pseudopodium
94
The most important initiator of ameboid locomotion is the process called ______________, which results from the appearance of certain chemical substances in the tissues
chemotaxis
95
Any chemical substance that causes chemotaxis to occur is called a ___
chemotactic substance
96
from an area of lower concentration toward an area of higher concentration ameboid locomotion move toward the source of a chemotactic substance
positive chemotaxis
97
Some cells move away from the source, which is called
negative chemotaxis
98
A whip-like movement of the cilia on the surface of the cells. It occurs in two places of the body: a. The respiratory airways b. The uterine tubes
CILIARY MOVEMENT
99
e nasal cavity and lower respiratory airways, the whiplike motion of cilia causes a layer of mucus to move at a rate of about____________ toward the pharynx
1 cm/min
100
In the uterine tubes, the cilia cause slow movement of fluid from the ostium of the uterine tube toward the uterus cavity; this movement of fluid transports the ovum from the _________
ovary to the uterus.
101
______cilia on the surface of each epithelial cell inside the respiratory passageways
200
102
The cilium is covered by an outcropping of the cell membrane, and it is supported by 11 microtubules ____ double tubules located around the periphery of the cilium and ____single tubules down the center
9 2
103
Each cilium is an outgrowth of a structure that lies immediately beneath the cell membrane, called the ________ of the cilium.
basal body
104
____________of a sperm is similar to a cilium; in fact, it has much the same type of structure and the same type of contractile mechanism. is much longer and moves in quasi-sinusoidal waves instead of whiplike movements
flagellum
105
9 double tubules a 2 single tubules - are all linked to one another by a complex of protein cross-linkages; this total complex of tubules and cross-linkages is called the ______________
axoneme
106
Third, two conditions are necessary for continued beating of the axoneme after removal of the other structures of the cilium:
(1) the availability of ATP and (2) appropriate ionic conditions, especially appropriate concentrations of magnesium and calcium.
107
during forward motion of the cilium, the double tubules on the front edge of the cilium slide ____toward the tip of the cilium, while those on the back edge remain in place
outward
108
multiple protein arms composed of the protein dynein, which has adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) enzymatic activity, project from each_____________ toward an adjacent double tubule
double tubule
109
the release of energy from ATP in contact with the ATPase dynein arms causes the heads of these arms to “crawl” rapidly along the surface of the adjacent ________________
double tubule
110