lecture test on respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive systems Flashcards
What are the main functions of respiratory system
gas exchange btwn the external environment and the blood
purify, humidify and warm incoming air
helps maintain pH of body
what are the organs of the respiratory system
nose
pharynx
larynx
trachea
bronchi
lungs-alveoli
what is the only externally visible part of the respiratory system
Nose
what are the structural features of the nose
external nostrils (nares)
Nasal cavity divided by a nasal septum
oral cavity- hard palate, soft palate
conchae-increase air turbulence
lined with respiratory mucosa
olfactory receptors located in the mucosa on superior surface
what are air filled cavities surround the nasal cavity, lined with mucous membrane.
paranasal sinuses, lighten skull and resonate voice
what are the functions of the larynx
directs air and food into the proper passageways
plays a role in speech
what vibrates with expelled air to create sound
true vocal cords or vocal folds (in larynx)
made of hyaline cartilage
what routes food to the esophagus and air to the trachea? prevents food from entering the larynx
epiglottis
what kind of tissue lines the trachea
the lumen is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
cilia beat continuously toward pharynx
removes dust and other debris from lungs
What is the air-blood barrier that O2 and CO2 have to cross it is the basement membrane
in the respiratory membrane
where does gas exchange occur in the lungs
alveoli
region of air flow
nose
pharynx
larynx
trachea
primary bronchi
secondary bronchi
tertiary bronchi
terminal bronchioles
region of gas exchange
respiratory bronchioles
alveolar ducts
alveolar sacs
alveoli (air sac)
https://youtu.be/Um_OZLWr7Kk
Completely mechanical process that depends on
volume and pressure changes in the thoracic cavity. when volume changes –> pressure changes. moving air into and out of lungs
which event of respiration is commonly called breathing
pulmonary ventilation
when volume changes pressure changes
inspiration=inhalation
what is main muscle of inspiration
DIAPHRAGM and external intercostal muscles
contract
Lung volume increases
Pressure lower in lungs than in atmosphere
Air flows into lung
expiration=exhalation
Largely a passive process
Inspiratory muscles relax and lungs recoil
Lung volume decreases
Pressure higher in lungs than in atmosphere
Air flow out of lungs
what sets basic rhythm of breathing
medulla
what controls respiratory rate
pons
contains surfactant secreting cells
composed of the alveolar and capillary walls and their fused basement membranes
composed largely of thin layers of squamous cells
air-blood barrier where gas exchange occurs by simple diffusion
the respiratory membrane
The respiratory membrane includes Alveolar and capillary walls fused to their basement membranes
which structures do oxygen molecules move from the lungs to the blood?
alveoli
In the blood, what is bound to hemoglobin (a protein found in red blood cells)
oxygen
When oxygen diffuses from the alveoli to the surrounding capillaries, it enters a red blood cell and binds to hemoglobin.
After blood becomes oxygenated,
it returns to the heart, and is then pumped to body cells.
what is a protein that can bind four molecules of oxygen.
hemoglobin
Carbon dioxide transport
CO2 is released from the mitochondria
CO2 diffuses into capillary
CO2 is carried to the lungs
CO2 diffuses into an alveolus
air exits through nose or mouth
the events of gas exchange
breathing moves air in & out of lungs
O2 diffuses from alveoli in the lungs into capillaries
O2 enters RBC where it binds to the protein hemoglobin
O2 diffuses from the blood to the body’s tissues & CO2 diffuses from the tissues to the blood
CO2 leaves the body when exhale
how oxygen is transported in the body
O2 diffuses from the alveoli into surrounding capillaries
O2 enters a RBC
O2 binds to a molecule of hemoglobin
O2 is carried through blood vessels to a capillary
O2 diffuses from the blood to the body’s tissues
the path that air follows to reach the lungs
air enters through the nose or mouth
air travels down the trachea and then enters the bronchi
air travels down smaller and smaller bronchioles
air reaches small sacs called alveoli
what is the main stimulus for increasing rate and depth of breathing
CO2- this is the most important stimulus for breathing
https://youtu.be/bNIxsKT_qdA
Which of the following would increase the pH of blood leading to alkalosis?
hyperventilating
What is normal expiration during quiet breathing in healthy people?
As the intrapulmonary pressure rises, air moves out of the lungs.
As the intrapulmonary volume decreases, the gases inside the lungs are forced more closely together.
The diaphragm relaxes, the ribcage descends, and the lungs recoil.
In the control of respiration, nerve impulses along the phrenic nerves move from where to where?
The medulla oblongata to the diaphragm
Amount of air that moves into or out of the lungs with a normal inhalation or exhalation
tidal volume
Maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation
vital capacity
https://youtu.be/cwp7Mhuc62o
Amount of air that can be inhaled following a normal inhalation
inspiratory reserve volume
Amount of air that can be exhaled following a normal exhalation
expiratory reserve volume
from superficial (outermost) to deep (innermost):
- lung
- pleural cavity (space)
- visceral (pulmonary) pleura
- parietal pleura
parietal pleura
pleural cavity
visceral pleura
lung
what is the function of the digestive system
Ingestion
digestion
absorption
defecation
what are the accessory digestive organs
teeth
salivary gland
pancreas
liver
gall bladder
what is pathway for alimentary canal?
mouth
pharynx
nasopharynx
oropharynx
laryngopharynx
esophagus
stomach
cardioesophageal sphincter
gastric rugae
pyloric sphincter
small intestine
duodenum
jejunum
ileum
large intestine
Ileocecum valve
Cecum
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Semoid colon
Rectum
Anal canal
anus
serosa
visceral peritoneum-membrane on external surface of alimentary canal
parietal peritoneum-membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity, forms the mesenteries
lingual and palatine
tonsils
what forces food through pharynx and into the esophagus
peristalsis- alternating contractions of longitudinal and circular muscle layers
functions of stomach
mechanical digestion of food (churning)
begins enzymatic breakdown of protein
delivers chyme to the small intestine
gastric glands that secrete pepsinogen
chief cells
gastric glands that produce hydrochloric acid
parietal cells
gastric glands that produce bicarbonate rich alkaline mucus
mucous cells
what empties chyme in 4 to 6hrs
stomach empties
what region receives chyme, bile, & pancreatic juice
duodenum
what ends at the ileocecal valve
ileum
what are the functions of the large intestine
absorb water-compaction & electrolytes
eliminate feces
how many teeth is a full dentition
32 teeth
what are the functions of teeth
incisors-bite off pieces of food
canine-grasp and tear food
premolars-grind food particles
molars-grind food particles
what is hardest substance in the body
enamel
where the pulp cavity extends into the root
root canal
what are salivary glands
parotid gland-salivary gland located in front of the ear
submandibular gland
sublingual gland
What juices do the pancreas produce?
enzymes-chemical digestion
bicarbonate- neutralizes acidic chyme
what does gall bladder store and do
stores and concentrates bile
bile ducts carry bile to the duodenum for fat digestion
where does most nutrient digestion and absorption occurs
jejunum
What is the mechanical digestion that prepares food for enzymatic digestion?
mastication-chewing
churning of food
peristalsis
what are the major nutrients
carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
water
what are two classes of chemical reactions in metabolism
catabolism-substances are broken down to simpler substances energy is released
anabolism-larger molecules are built from smaller ones, energy is consumed
preferred source to produce cellular energy (ATP)
carbohydrate metabolism
glucose(blood sugar)-energy is released when glucose is oxidized is used to produce ATP
has numerous goblet cells in its mucosa.
It has longitudinal bands of muscle called teniae coli, which pucker to form small sacs called haustra.
It includes the cecum, the colon, and the rectum
large intestine
absorbs water and electrolytes from feces; compaction
what enzyme does Carbohydrate digestion in the mouth
salivary amylase
the enzyme for Protein digestion in the stomach
pepsin
the enzyme for Protein digestion in the small intestine
trypsin
the enzyme for Fat digestion in the small intestine
pancreatic lipase
what enzyme for Complete digestion of carbohydrates and proteins in the small intestine
brush border enzymes
Which of the following are roles of the liver?
Production of bile
Detoxification of drugs and alcohol
Glycogen storage
the innermost layer of the alimentary canal that lines the lumen.
mucosa
Shaped like a worm, the appendix projects inferiorly from which region of the large intestine?
cecum
Which of the following is the major means of propelling the bolus and chyme through the digestive tract?
peristalsis
The fingerlike projections of the small intestine mucosa, which are so important in nutrient absorption, are the
villi
series of chemical reactions used to synthesize ATP in presence of oxygen
cellular respiration
permanent folds of mucosa and submucosa of the small intestine
circular folds
bulges present of the external surface of the large intestine
haustra
largest gland in the body
liver
produced by liver to help emulsify fats
bile
amount of energy used by node per hour at rest
basal metabolic rate
actors that influence BMR
1. Thyroid hormone level - primary factor
2. Surface area—a small body usually has a higher
BMR
3. Gender—males tend to have higher BMRs
4. Age—children and adolescents have higher BMRs
Physiological acidosis refers to which range of pH values for arterial blood?
7.0-7.35
Which of the following is an organ that differs in males and females both structurally and functionally?
urethra
What substance produced by the kidneys helps regulate blood pressure?
renin
Blood leaving an afferent arteriole would directly enter which of the following?
glomerulus
Which fluid compartment contains about two-thirds of total body fluid?
intracellular fluid
what is out to air tube
urethra
funnel urine to renal pelvis, receive urine from collecting ducts
calyces
what are structural and functional units of the kidneys, 1 million/kidney, responsible for forming urine
nephrons
what does collecting duct do
receives fluid from many nephrons
concentrates urine by reabsorbing water from filtrate
directs urine into the calyces and renal pelvis
what is normal urine production per day
1.0-1.8 liters produced in 24hrs
Renal artery provides each kidney with arterial
blood supply
◦ Plasma is filtered at
glomerulus
Most filtrate is reabsorbed by
peritubular capillaries
where is plasma filtered
renal corpuscle glomerulus
what is ball-shaped knot of capillaries
glomerulus
what is the cup-shaped hollow structure that forms the outer wall of the renal corpuscle
glomerular (bowman’s) capsule
Coiled structure that is continuous with the renal corpuscle
proximal convoluted tubule PCT
U-shaped structure that dips toward or into the renal medulla
nephron loop
Coiled structure that extends to a collecting duct
distal convoluted tubule DCT
what is most common type of nephron located almost completely within the renal cortex
cortical nephrons
The smooth triangular region at the base of the bladder is called the
trigone
3 opening 2 from ureters 1 to the urethra
In the process of tubular secretion, substances move from the
peritubular capillaries to the renal tubule
Which of the following is normally present in the glomerular filtrate but not normally present in the urine?
glucose
Which of the following terms refers to an inflammation of the urinary bladder?
cystitis
Starting at the apex of a medullary pyramid, which is the correct sequence of structures through which urine flows to reach the exterior of the body?
Calyces, renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
What is the most superficial region of the kidney?
renal cortex
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) stimulates tubular reabsorption of ___
water only
Which of the following terms refers to the formation of a large volume of urine?
polyuria
Which of the following are nitrogenous waste products?
urea
uric acid
creatinine
What are the two main parts of a nephron?
renal corpuscle and renal tubule
The wall of the urinary bladder is composed of three layers of smooth muscle called the __________, and its mucosa consists of __________.
detrusor muscle; transitional epithelium
The first layer is the lining on the inside of your bladder.It is called the transitional epithelium or urothelium. The second layer is a thin layer of connective tissue called the lamina propria. The third layer is muscle tissue called the muscularis propria.
The return of substances from the renal tubules of the nephrons to the blood is known as _______
tubular reabsorption
The triangular regions in the medulla of the kidney are called renal __________.
pyramids
what is emptying of the urinary bladder
micturition
reflex causes the internal sphincter to open when stretch receptors in the bladder are stimulated
what occupies three main fluid compartments
intravascular, interstitial, and intracellular.
Urine formation is the result of three processes
A. Glomerular filtration
B. Tubular reabsorption
C. Tubular secretion
Urine Formation
Glomerular filtration
◦ Water and small solutes move from glomerulus into
glomerular capsule
◦ Proteins and blood cells are normally too large to be
filtered
◦ Filtrate flows into renal tubule
Urine Formation
◦ Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
Volume of filtrate produced by both kidneys per minute
(115-125 ml/min)
180L/day
Plasma filtered 60x/day
What is fluid outside cells
about 1/3 of body fluids
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
* Fluid outside cells
* About ⅓ of body fluids
* Extracellular fluids
* Blood plasma
* Interstitial fluid (tissue fluid), cerebrospinal and
serous fluids, humors of the eye and lymph, et
intracellular fluid
- Fluid inside cells
- About ⅔ of body fluid
what is smooth collapsible muscular sac lined with a mucous membrane
urinary bladder
what are the sources of water output
lungs
perspiration
feces
urine
Water and Electrolyte Balance
Hormones are primarily responsible for reabsorption
of water and electrolytes by the kidneys
- antidiuretic hormone ADH
Increases water reabsorption in the kidneys - Prevents excessive water loss in the urine
- Aldosterone
- Increases Na+ reabsorption; decreases K+ reabsorption
Maintaining Acid-Base Balance
Blood pH must remain between
7.35 and 7.45 to
maintain homeostasis
◦ Alkalosis—pH above 7.45
◦ Acidosis—pH below 7.35
Prevent dramatic changes in H+ concentrations
◦ Bind to H+ when pH drops
◦ Release H+ when pH rises
blood buffers
Respiratory Mechanism
When blood pH falls (H+ concentration too high
Respiratory rate increases
◦ H+ used to “make” CO2; CO2 is exhaled;
◦ H+ concentration decreases; raising pH to normal range
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3−
When blood pH increases (H+ concentration too low)
◦ Respiratory rate decreases
◦ CO2 is retained; “converted” to H+
◦ H+ concentration increases; lowering pH to normal range
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3−
urine pH varies from
4.5-8.0
Receive substances reabsorbed from filtrate
Peritubular capillaries
A fast acting system for regulating body ph
Respiratory system
Glomerulus plus glomerular capsule
Renal corpuscle
Hormone that increases sodium absorption from filtrate
Aldosterone
Process that occurs within renal corpuscle
Plasma filtration
Receive urine from collecting ducts
Calyces
Involved in long term regulation of body pH
Kidneys
Type of nephron located at boundary of cortex and medulla
Juxtamedullary nephron
Outer region of kidney
Renal cortex
Location of thirst center
Hypothalamus
Functional unit of kidney
Nephron
Fluid within nephron
Filtrate
Hormone necessary to concentrate urine
Antidiuretic hormone
Chemical system that prevents dramatic changes in blood pH
Blood buffers
what is a structure of a follicle
oocyte (immature egg) follicular cells- layers of cells that surround the oocyte
what contains an immature oocyte
primary follicle
what is ovulation
a vesicular follicle ruptures and releases a secondary oocyte
occurs about day 14 of cycle
The rupture of the mature follicle and the release of its contents occur during ovulation
a surge in luteinizing hormone causes ovulation
what is hormone of first 2 weeks of ovulation is being secreted
estrogen
what is the inner layer of the uterus
regenerates during the uterine cycle
endometrium
allows for implantation of a fertilized egg
sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs
what is ability to release eggs begins and ends reproductive ability when?
puberty
menopause
the total supply of eggs is determined before a female is born
smooth muscle that contracts during labor
myometrium
what part of the uterus projects into the vaginal canal
cervix
The narrow portion of the uterus that extends inferiorly into the superior region of the vagina is known as the cervix
what is the process of producing ova (eggs)
oogenesis
explain follicle maturation
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates follicles
to mature
Primary follicle
◦ Single layer of cells surrounding
oocyte (day 1)
◦ Growing follicle
◦ Antrum, zona pellucida, corona
radiata
◦ Mature vesicular follicle
◦ Corpus luteum (days 15-28)
◦ Forms after ovulation
which layer of the uterus sloughs off during menstruation
functional layer of the endometrium
secondary oocyte + polar body
has 23 chromosomes
each chromosomes composed of 2 sister chromatids
zygote is composed of?
46 chromosomes are formed by union of nucleus of egg and nucleus of sperm (fertilization)
sperm contributes 23 chromosomes
egg contributes 23 chromosomes
what happens if fertilization occurs
sexual intercourse must occur no more than 2 days before ovulation and no later than 24hrours after
embryo produces a hormone that causes the corpus luteum to continue producing its hormones
an oocyte is viable up to 24hrs after ovulation
sperm are viable up to 48hrs after ejaculation
when does zygote become a fetus
week 9 until birth it is considered a fetus
production of sperm and egg is called
spermatogenesis (produced in seminiferous tubules)
and oogenesis
what is spermatogenesis
production of sperm cells by
meiotic cell division
begins at puberty
occurs in the seminiferous tubules
what happens when primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis
one primary spermatocyte produces
4 haploid spermatids
a)spermatids 23 chromosomes
b) spermatids further mature into sperm cells via spermiogenesis
4 daughter cells not genetically identical
what is external region penis at the end
prepuce (foreskin)
male stem cell initiates mitosis
follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates spermatogonia to divide by mitosis
what activates the sperm
prostate, secretes a milky fluid helps to activate sperm
fluid enters the urethra through several small ducts
what are the two steps of spermatogenesis
how long is entire proccess
meiosis is first step
spermatogenesis is second step
2 to 3 months, 64 to 72days to produce sperm cells
what is the product of spermatogenesis
4 sperm cells that are not genetically identical
what is the most important hormone of the testes
testosterone
produced by interstitial cells in the testes
once the placenta has formed, umbilical cord contains umbilical arteries and vein
a fluid filled sac that surrounds the embryo called amnion
the placenta forms a barrier btwn mother and embryo (blood not exchanged)
and functions of placenta are
amnion forms-amnion is the fluid filled sac
Placenta- *Delivers oxygen and nutrients to fetal blood
*Produces progesterone and estrogens that help maintain pregnancy
*Removes waste products from fetal blood
what is the series of events that expel the infant from the urterus
labor, childbirth (parturition)
what initiates labor, which hormone causes uterine contractions
oxytocin from the posterior pituitary stimulates rhythmic, expulsive contractions of the myometrium
positive feedback mechanism
the secondary oocyte is surrounded by? during the release of the secondary oocyte from the surface of the ovary
by zona pellucida and corona radiata (protecting the egg)
only last about 12- 24hrs then starts to break down
what type of cell is ovulated
secondary oocyte
what is accomplished with 15min after birth of infant?
delivery of the placenta, afterbirth
placenta and attached fetal membranes
what is function of polar bodies
get rid of extra genetic material
what are the primary sex organs
gonads
testes in males
ovaries in females
what do males gonads produce
gametes- sperm in the testes
hormone testosterone
scrotum maintains testes at a lower temperature
what do females gonads produce
gametes-ova (oocytes)
hormone estrogen and progesterone
explain the duct system in the epididymis
tightly coiled tube-6meters
sperm cells mature and gain agility to swim and are stored
contraction of muscles in the wall of the epididymis expels sperm into the ductus deferens
what carries sperm from epididymis to ejaculatory duct
ductus (vas) deferens
ejaculation-smooth muscle in the wall s of the ductus deferens create peristaltic waves to propel sperm forward
what is cutting of the ductus deferens at level of the testes?
vasectomy
prevents transportation of sperm
what Occurs only in the gonads, Consists of two consecutive nuclear divisions, Produces four daughter cells
meiosis
what Begins with the onset of true contractions
Ends when the cervix is fully dilated
the dilation stage of labor
what causes the endometrial tissue to die
drop in estrogen and progesterone levels
what cell type of oogenesis is when stem cell within a fetal ovary
oogonium
what cell type of oogenesis is when cell that starts meiosis I
primary oocyte
what cell type of oogenesis is when a cell that starts meiosis II
secondary oocyte
the functional product of oogenesis
ovum
what are the tiny cells that degenerates during oogenesis
polar body
The formation of the corpus luteum in the ovary corresponds with which phase of the uterine (menstrual) cycle?
secretory phase
The secretory phase follows under the influence of progesterone (from the corpus luteum), which thickens the endometrium further (approx. 6 mm).
The structure that gives rise to the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm?
inner cell mass
Sperm maturation occurs in which of the following locations?
epididymis
Developing follicles produce __________, which stimulates thickening of the endometrium during each uterine cycle and the development of female secondary sex characteristics.
estrogen
what is an acrosomal reaction
sperm releases acrosomal enzymes to penetrate the zona pellucida and then binds to receptors on plasma membrane of oocyte
Select all of the structures that hold the ovaries in place.
Suspensory ligament
Ovarian ligaments
Broad ligament
the male accessory glands.
prostate- located inferior to male urinary bladder
seminal vesicles
bulbourethral glands
Which female reproductive structure contains sensitive erectile tissue and becomes swollen with blood during sexual excitement?
clitoris
The usual site of implantation of the blastocyst is the __________.
uterus
implants into endometrium
The innermost mucosal lining of the uterus is the endometrium
Within the lobules of a mammary gland, the __________ glands of a lactating female produce milk.
alveolar glands
What hormone produced by the blastocyst causes the corpus luteum to continue producing its hormones to maintain the endometrium?
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
in females, meiosis II is completed at
fertilization
the normal site of fertilization happens in the uterine tubes
fat pad overlying pubic bones
mons pubis
when is progesterone secreted
during weeks 3 & 4 female cycle and is necessary for implantation and pregnancy
what is the cell that is ovulated
secondary oocyte
structure that forms from follicular cells after ovulation
corpus luteum
enlarged tip of penis
glans penis
external female genitalia
vulva
fluid filled space of an ovarian follicle
antrum
Antrum
Corona radiata
Mature follicle
Secondary oocyte
Zona pellucida
