lecture review points Flashcards
How are water management systems and social organization interconnected?
Control of irrigation systems required organized labor and planning, fostering centralized authority.
How did calendars develop?
Calendars developed from astronomical observations to regulate agricultural cycles.
What promoted bureaucracy and legal codes in water distribution?
The need to coordinate water distribution promoted bureaucracy and legal codes.
How did rulers legitimize their power?
Rulers legitimized power through claims of divine insight or cosmic order.
What role did mathematics play in ancient civilizations?
Used for practical tasks: land measurement, trade, and construction.
How was mathematics essential for irrigation planning?
Essential for irrigation planning and maintaining calendars.
What did mathematics enable in ancient civilizations?
Enabled astronomical observations and early timekeeping.
How did mathematics help in accounting systems?
Helped develop early accounting systems and legal codes.
How is natural philosophy intertwined with religion?
Deeply intertwined: explanations of nature often had spiritual or divine foundations.
Who were often scholars in ancient civilizations?
Priests were often scholars, especially in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
What role did religious institutions play in knowledge preservation?
Religious institutions preserved and sponsored knowledge.
In what context were medicine and astronomy pursued?
Medicine and astronomy were pursued within religious contexts.
Why did natural philosophy develop in the Greek world?
Greek city-states encouraged debate and inquiry; less theocratic control.
What promoted exchange of ideas in ancient Greece?
Proximity to diverse cultures (Phoenicians, Egyptians) promoted exchange.
What enabled elites to study nature in ancient Greece?
Wealth and leisure enabled elites to study nature.
How did written language support learning in ancient Greece?
Written language and institutions (Academy, Lyceum) supported learning.
What were the principal concerns of Greek natural philosophers?
Origin and composition of matter (e.g., water, atoms).
What did Greek natural philosophers study regarding the universe?
The structure of the universe and celestial motion.
What philosophical areas did Greek philosophers explore?
Ethics and metaphysics (Socrates, Plato).
What methods did Aristotle focus on?
Classification and observation (Aristotle).
How did Greek science spread throughout the world?
Spread through conquests of Alexander the Great and Hellenistic empires.
What was the role of the Museum of Alexandria?
The Museum of Alexandria was a research center with vast libraries.
How did the Museum of Alexandria support scholars?
It supported scholars in astronomy, mathematics, medicine.
What did the Museum of Alexandria do with knowledge?
Knowledge preserved, copied, and translated into other languages.
How did natural philosophy develop in the Islamic world?
Islamic Golden Age saw translation and expansion of Greek texts.
Who were key innovators in Islamic natural philosophy?
Scholars like Alhazen, Avicenna, and Al-Khwarizmi made key innovations.
What developments occurred during the Islamic Golden Age?
Developments in optics, algebra, medicine, and astronomy.
How was science supported in the Islamic world?
Science supported by caliphs and institutions like the House of Wisdom.
What role did translators play during the Islamic Golden Age?
Greek, Persian, and Indian texts translated into Arabic.
How did translations preserve knowledge?
Preserved classical knowledge through political turmoil in Europe.
What did translations foster in Islamic science?
Fostered comparative analysis and synthesis.
What enabled later Latin translations?
Enabled later Latin translations that revived learning in Europe.
How did Charlemagne support education?
Saw education as a means of unifying his empire.
What did Charlemagne establish for education?
Established palace schools and promoted Latin literacy.
Who did Charlemagne invite to lead educational reform?
Invited scholars like Alcuin of York to lead reform.
What did Charlemagne promote in education?
Promoted copying of classical and Christian texts.
How did Christian scholars address Aristotelian philosophy?
Sought harmony between faith and reason.
Who synthesized Aristotle with Christian theology?
Aquinas synthesized Aristotle with Christian theology.
What method of inquiry developed in Christian scholarship?
Scholasticism developed as a method of inquiry.
How did alchemists contribute to natural philosophy?
Experimental approaches to materials and transformation.
What did alchemists search for?
Search for elixirs and transmutation advanced chemistry.
What did alchemists preserve?
Preserved practical techniques in texts and practice.
How did alchemists influence scientific methods?
Influenced early modern scientific methods.
What role did medieval universities play?
Formalized education in arts, law, medicine, and theology.
What was the curriculum of medieval universities based on?
Curriculum rooted in Aristotelian logic and natural philosophy.
What did medieval universities produce?
Produced scholarly communities and debate.
What became centers of intellectual authority?
Medieval universities became centers of intellectual authority.
How did the Crusades transform natural philosophy in Europe?
Increased contact with Islamic and Byzantine scholars.
What classical texts were introduced during the Crusades?
Introduction of classical texts and scientific instruments.
What areas of study were stimulated by the Crusades?
Stimulated interest in geography, medicine, astronomy.
What translation movements were promoted by the Crusades?
Promoted translation movements in Spain and Sicily.
What influenced Copernicus to develop a heliocentric system?
Studied classical models and noticed inconsistencies.
What ancient Greek ideas inspired Copernicus?
Inspired by ancient Greek ideas (e.g., Aristarchus).
What did Copernicus seek in his heliocentric model?
Sought mathematical simplicity and harmony.
What aided Copernicus in his studies?
Aided by humanist interest in ancient knowledge.
What is the role of printing in spreading ideas?
Enabled mass production of books and treatises.
How did printing facilitate knowledge dissemination?
Facilitated wider dissemination of scientific knowledge.
What did printing standardize?
Standardized texts and illustrations.
How did printing empower scholarly communities?
Empowered new scholarly communities.
What role did patronage play in science development?
Wealthy elites and rulers funded scholars and projects.
Who benefited from noble and church patrons?
Galileo and Kepler benefited from noble and church patrons.
How was science used in relation to rulers?
Science used to glorify rulers and states.
How did patronage influence inquiry?
Patronage influenced the direction and goals of inquiry.
Was there a Scientific Revolution?
Yes; shift from Aristotelian to mechanistic worldview.
What was emphasized during the Scientific Revolution?
Emphasis on observation, mathematics, and experimentation.
What models were developed during the Scientific Revolution?
Heliocentric model, laws of motion, optics, and anatomy.
What supported the Scientific Revolution?
Institutional support from academies and printing.
How did Newton complete the Copernican revolution?
Provided mathematical laws uniting celestial and terrestrial motion.
What explained planetary orbits?
Law of Universal Gravitation explained planetary orbits.
Whose work did Newton synthesize?
Synthesized work of Galileo and Kepler.
What worldview did Newton cement?
Cemented mechanistic worldview.
How were the Royal Society and Académie des Sciences similar?
Both state-supported institutions promoting science.
What was unique about the Royal Society?
Royal Society (UK): more independent, experimental focus.
What characterized the Académie des Sciences?
Académie (France): closer ties to monarchy, more formal structure.
What did both institutions promote?
Both promoted empirical research and publication.
What role did women play in natural philosophy?
Often excluded from formal education.
How did women contribute to natural philosophy?
Contributed as illustrators, translators, patrons.
What offered women intellectual engagement?
Enlightenment salons offered intellectual engagement.
How did access for women change over time?
Access improved slightly over time but remained limited.
How did the scientific revolution influence the Enlightenment?
Promoted reason, empiricism, and skepticism.
What confidence did the scientific revolution inspire?
Inspired confidence in human progress.
What shift occurred in authority during the Enlightenment?
Shifted authority from tradition to observation.
What reforms did the Enlightenment encourage?
Encouraged reform in education, law, and politics.
How did scientific collecting change science?
Enabled classification of natural specimens.
What did scientific collecting foster?
Fostered comparative analysis (botany, zoology).
What informed taxonomies during scientific collecting?
Informed taxonomies and evolutionary thought.
What became research tools during scientific collecting?
Museums and collections became research tools.
What did Lavoisier revolutionize in chemistry?
Identified and named elements (oxygen).
What theory did Lavoisier disprove?
Disproved phlogiston theory.
What methods did Lavoisier introduce?
Introduced quantitative methods in experiments.
What did Lavoisier help establish?
Helped establish modern chemical nomenclature.
How did the Rangaku movement influence Japan?
Introduced Western medical and scientific texts.
What did the Rangaku movement promote?
Promoted empirical observation.
What did the Rangaku movement foster?
Fostered scientific debate and experimentation.
What prepared Japan for modernization?
Prepared Japan for Meiji modernization.
How did the Rangaku movement parallel the European Enlightenment?
Emphasized rational inquiry and empirical methods.
What did the Rangaku movement challenge?
Challenged traditional authorities (Confucianism).
What did the Rangaku movement promote for societal improvement?
Promoted knowledge for societal improvement.
What did the Rangaku movement develop?
Developed networks for sharing scientific ideas.
How did the Boulton and Watt steam engine contribute to industries?
Provided reliable power for factories and mills.
What did the steam engine enable in industries?
Enabled industrial scaling and specialization.
What did the steam engine reduce dependence on?
Reduced dependence on water power.
What industries did the steam engine stimulate?
Stimulated transportation and mining industries.
How did industrialization change labor conditions?
Shift from artisanal to factory labor.
What were the conditions of labor during industrialization?
Long hours, low wages, poor working conditions.
What arose due to poor labor conditions?
Rise of labor unions and strikes.
How did industrialization redefine class structures?
Redefined class structures.
How does computing fit into the Industrial Revolution?
Originated in automation (Jacquard loom, punch cards).
What was Babbage’s Analytical Engine?
Babbage’s Analytical Engine as conceptual ancestor.
How did later computers transform industrial logistics?
Later computers transformed industrial logistics.
What is computing integral to?
Integral to modern information age.
What were the environmental consequences of steam power and coal?
Air and water pollution.
What environmental issues arose during industrialization?
Deforestation and land degradation.
What urban issues were caused by industrialization?
Urban overcrowding and poor sanitation.
What early awareness developed regarding industrialization?
Early awareness of environmental impact.
How did chemistry and government shape chemical weapons during WWI?
National labs supported chemical research.
What gases were developed during WWI?
Development of chlorine and mustard gas.
What did chemical warfare require?
Chemical warfare required new logistics and training.
What debate was sparked by chemical weapons?
Sparked debate on ethics and regulation.
What advancements laid groundwork for nuclear weapons?
Discovery of nuclear fission (1938).
What did governments recognize about nuclear fission?
Governments recognized military potential.
Who contributed to Allied research on nuclear weapons?
Exiled scientists contributed to Allied research.
What institutionalized Big Science?
Manhattan Project institutionalized Big Science.
What role did computers play in WWII?
Code-breaking (Colossus at Bletchley Park).
What was ENIAC used for during WWII?
Ballistics and simulation (ENIAC).
What role did Harvard Mark I have during WWII?
Data processing (Harvard Mark I).
What precedent did WWII set for computing?
Set precedent for postwar computing research.
How did Cold War tensions drive computer innovation?
Need for real-time defense systems (SAGE).
What government investment occurred during the Cold War?
Government investment in ARPANET.
What was emphasized during the Cold War regarding communication?
Emphasis on communication security.
What accelerated innovation during the Cold War?
Military-civilian tech transfer accelerated innovation.
How did competition between US and USSR shape computing?
Space race drove miniaturization and computing power.
What spurred navigation and communication tech during the Cold War?
Satellites spurred navigation and communication tech.
What were the rival models of innovation during the Cold War?
Rival models of state vs. corporate innovation.
How did the Cold War affect computing in daily life?
Cold War pushed computing into all sectors of life.
