Lecture reading 6 - Buddhism: The Threat of Eradication

Question 1

What were the two slogans regarding Buddhism in the Meiji era?

Answer 1

Shinbutsu bunri - separation of Shinto and Buddhism

Haibutsu kishaku - eradication of Buddhism

Question 2

Describe Buddhism’s position in the Edo period (four points).

Answer 2

1. protected and privileged position - cost was compliance
2. lives of monks/nuns and temples regulated by bakufu codes and domain ordinances
3. temples as centres of compulsory religious registration to eradicate Christianity
4. established religion

Question 3

What happened to Buddhism in Tokugawa intellectual history?

Answer 3

Rejected. Currents flowed towards Confucianism, Confucian Shinto, pure Shinto, ‘national learning’ or Dutch and Western Studies. Buddhism attacked from all sides.

Question 4

What did scholars advocate?

Answer 4

‘National learning’ (kokugaku) - attack on both Shinto and Confucianism

Question 5

Which two scholars were opposed to Shinto’s contamination by and subordination to Buddhism?

Answer 5

Motoori Norinaga and Hirata Atsutane

Question 6

What did most intellectuals think of Buddhism?

Answer 6

Alien and irrational creed.

Question 7

What did most intellectuals criticise about Buddhism (six points)?

Answer 7

1. protection and privilege of Buddhism
2. excessive number and wealth of temples
3. temples’ exactions on peasantry and townspeople
4. strain temples imposed on domain treasuries
5. unruliness of True Pure LAnd or Nichiren devotees
6. idleness and immorality of bonzes

Question 8

What became more strident as national awareness and national crisis mounted?

Answer 8

Calls for reforms.

Question 9

Which three domains implemented reforms in the Tokugawa era and in what way?

Answer 9

Okayama, Aizu, and Mito - tightened control over Buddhism and gave more prominence to Shinto.

Question 10

What was Buddhism subjected to in the late Edo period?

Answer 10

Purges in some domains - went from administrative tidying to destruction and elimination of Buddhism.

Question 11

Describe the reforms in Mito in the Tokugawa period (five points)

Answer 11

1. 190 temples abolished and 121 of them destroyed.
2. Monks laicised and encouraged to return to agriculture or become Shinto priests.
3. Mixed Shinto-Buddhist priests converted to pure Shinto.
4. Temple registration became shrine registration.
5. Shinto funeral rites implemented.

Question 12

Which two domains had anti-Buddhist sentiments?

Answer 12

Satsuma and Choshu.

Question 13

What was particular about Choshu’s sentiments?

Answer 13

Call for separation of Shinto and Buddhism and promotion of Shinto in religious and intellectual life of domain.

Question 14

What state was Buddhism in at the beginning of the Meiji Era?

Answer 14

Intellectual and institutional siege.

Question 15

What did the downfall of the bakufu mean for Buddhism?

Answer 15

Left it exposed and vulnerable to the new regime. Anti-bakufu could become anti-Buddhist. Loyalist, pro-Shinto, anti-Buddhist sentiments in many domains.

Question 16

What did Satsuma and Choshu leaders do?

Answer 16

Promoted Shinto beliefs that contributed to strengthened imperial ideology.

Question 17

Describe the shibutsu bunri policy (five points).

Answer 17

1. continued bakufu proscription of Christianity.
2. disentangled Shinto from Buddhism.
3. eliminated Buddhist influence from shrines.
4. elevated Shinto as national creed.
5. (from 1871) disestablished Buddhism and confiscated temple lands and property.

Question 18

How was Buddhism represented?

Answer 18

Lowly representation through an office in the Department of Home Affairs.

Question 19

What did bunri turn into?

Answer 19

Haibutsu (destruction).

Question 20

Describe the regulations drafted by the Dajokan regarding Buddhism (seven points).

Answer 20

1. Buddhist priests attached to shrines had to either move to Buddhist temples, live as laymen, or become Shinto priests.
2. Buddhist titles no longer applied to Shinto kami or the sacred objects that represented them (shintai).
3. Buddhist icons were not to be used as shintai.
4. All Buddhist statues and ritual objects had to be removed to Shrine precincts.
5. Imperial court was cleared of all tincture of Buddhism.
6. Shinto funeral rites were promoted.
7. Shrine registration was promoted.

Question 21

Did the separation edicts call for the destruction of Buddhism?

Answer 21

No, but they were interpreted as condoning attacks on Buddhism, particularly in pro-Shinto domains.

Question 22

What happened in 1872 regarding Buddhism?

Answer 22

The government turned from separation to disestablishment. Temple lands confiscated, many temples closed and some schools of Buddhism forced to amalgamate or disband.

Question 23

Which four government agencies were responsible for shinbutsu bunri and how were they paired?

Answer 23

• Department/MInistry of Rites (Jingikan or Jingishou)
• within it, Office of Proselytizers (Senkyouin)

Both hardl-line, all-Shinto organisations.

• Ministry of Rites and Education (Kyoubushou)
• within it, Office of the Great Teaching (Daikyouin)

Not as militant as first two, Buddhist clergy still co-opted but drive was towards promotion of Shinto.

Question 24

What did the Jingikan do?

Answer 24

Had control over all shrines and Shinto priests.

Question 25

What did the Senkyoushi do?

Answer 25

Had Shinto propogandists that explained and justified Shinto in towns and villages across country, promoted Shinto as national creed.

Question 26

What did the Kyoubushou do?

Answer 26

Designed to combat doubts from Meiji leaders - including Eto Shinpei and Saigo Takamori - about aggressive, exclusive pro-Shinto policies.

Incorporated Buddhist clerics as well as Shinto priests in promotion of Shinto as ‘Great Teaching’. Some 4,000 Shinto priests and 3,000 Buddhist clerics.

However, incorporation of Buddhist priests did not bring end to shinbutsu bunri, disestablishment of Buddhism, or haibutsu kishaku.

Question 27

What were the three injunctions of the ‘Great Teaching’?

Answer 27

1. Revere the kami and love the country.
2. Clarify heavenly reason and the Way of humanity.
3. Revere the emperor and respect courtly directives.

Question 28

What did the Daikyouin do?

Answer 28

Set up in temple of Zoujouji in Tokyo and branches set up throughout country. Aim to build nationwide network of centres for inculcation of ‘Great Teaching’. Staffed by instructors who could win an audience - not just Shinto and Buddhist priests but also kabuki actors and popular entertainers. State creed made no provision for teaching of Buddhism, and preaching confined to three injunctions.

Question 29

Describe the assault on Buddhism (four points).

Answer 29

1. Buddhist sutras and statues burnt, destroyed, or sold.
2. Buddhist buildings destroyed.
3. Buddhist priests forced to leave temples or become Shinto priests.
4. Syncretic divinities renamed and treated as purely Shinto figures.

Question 30

Which domains in particular had severe anti-Buddhist policies (eight)?

Answer 30

Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa, Tsuwano, Toyama, Matsumoto, Kyoto, Nara.

Question 31

What was particular about anti-Buddhist sentiment in Satsuma?

Answer 31

Not a single Buddhist temple is known to have survived - ALL temples abolished, monks laicised, lands confiscated, statues and ritual objects destroyed.

Question 32

What was particular about anti-Buddhist sentiment in Kyoto and Nara?

Answer 32

Buddhist ceremonies such as Obon traditionally performed by Buddhist priests were prohibited.

Question 33

What did Buddhist leaders view shinbutsu bunri as?

Answer 33

A crisis of religious survival.

Question 34

Why was there not much resistance?

Answer 34

Because the Tokugawa system had incurred Buddhism to compliance with political authority.

Question 35

What was the Buddhist clergy unable to deny?

Answer 35

That there were too many temples, and many monks and nuns were ignorant and poorly trained.

Question 36

What had Buddhism sacrificed under Tokugawa patronage.

Answer 36

Vitality, in return for security.

Question 37

What did most resistance call for?

Answer 37

Restraint or protests against excessive violence.

Question 38

What forms did lay resistance take? (four prefectures, four points)

Answer 38

Toyama: Buddhist protested in streets.
Satsuma: Buddhists met in secret after severe anti-Buddhist policies enforced.
Kikuma: Mass protests, Buddhists took up arms against officials trying to enforce shinbutsu bunri.
Fukui: Religious uprising.

Question 39

What happened to the protests in Kikuma and Fukui?

Answer 39

They were quelled, leaders punished or executed.

Question 40

What did the responses to the crisis of transition allow Buddhism to do?

Answer 40

Make a partial recovery and helped Buddhists to re-examine their religion and redefine place in Meiji society.

Question 41

Describe four responses:

Answer 41

1. Based on acceptance of guilt.
   Abuses in Buddhism prevalent and invited anti-Buddhism. If eradicated and religious discipline recovered, Buddhism would be strengthened and survive.
2. Encouragement of secterian reform and inter-sect cooperation.
   Shinshu Hangonji promoted organisation reform and improvement of education and training of its priests.
3. Alignment with the state.
   Jodo Shinshu priest Shimaji Mokurai criticised association of religion with politics. Appealed for abolition of Daikyouin and pressed for freedom of religious expression. Kyoubushou abolished in 1877, freedom of religion recognised in Meiji Constitution. Freed Buddhism from subordination to Shinto.
4. Responses to Christianity and the West.
   Threatened resurgence of Christianity greater menace than Shinto supremacy. Monks adopted methods of Western religious scholarship and were sent to the West to study and observe.

Question 42

What became clear by the end of this period?

Answer 42

That Buddhism would not be eradicated, neither would it be subordinate to Shinto or swamped with Christianity.